Fluidez en el terminal es una destreza a menudo abandonada y considerada arcaica, pero esta mejora s flexibilidad y productividad como ingeniero en ambas formas obvia y sutil. Esta es una selección de notas y consejos al uar el terminal que encontré útil cuando trabajó en Linux. Algunos consejos son elementales, y algunos bastante específico, sofisiticados, o oscuros. Esta página no es larga, pero si usa y and recuerda todos los puntos aquí, ustedes saben un montón.
en [Quora](http://www.quora.com/What-are-some-time-saving-tips-that-every-Linux-user-should-know),
pero debido al interés mostrado ahí, parece que vale la pena usar Github, donde las personas con mayor talento que facílmente sugerir mejoras. Si yo vez un error o algo que podría ser mejor, por favor, cree un issue o PR! (Por supuesto revise la sección meta de PRs/issues primero.)
- Esta guía es para ambos el principiante y el experimentado. Los objetivos son *diversidad* (todo importa), *especificidad* (dar ejemplos concretos del caso más común), y *concisión* (evitar cosas que no son esenciales o insignificantes que puedas buscar facilmente en otro lugar). Cada consejo es esencial en alguna situación o significativamente ahorra tiempo comparada con otras alternativas.
- Esta escrito para Linux. Mucho pero no todos los puntos se aplican igualmente para MacOS (o incluso Cygwin).
- Se enficá en Bash interactivo, Aunque muchos de los consejos se aplican para otros shells y al Bash scripting por lo general.
- Esta incluye ambos comandos "estándar" Unix commands así como aquellos que requiren la instalación especial de in paquete -- siempre que sea suficientemente importante para ameritar su inclusión.
- Para mantener esto en una página, el contenido esta incluido implicitamente por referencia. Tú eres suficientemente inteligente para ver profundamente los detalles en otros lugares, cuando conoces la idea o comando command en Google. Usar `apt-get`/`yum`/`dnf`/`pacman`/`pip`/`brew` (según proceda) para instalar los nuevos programas.
- Usar [Explainshell](http://explainshell.com/) para obtener detalles de ayuda sobre que comandos, options, pipes, etc.
- Aprenda conocimiento básicos de Bash. De hecho, escriba `man bash` y al menos echelé un vistazo a todo la cosa; Es bastante fácil de seguir y no es tan largo. Alternar entre shells puede ser agradable, pero Bash es poderoso y siempre esta disponible (Por conocimiento *solo* zsh, fish, etc., aunque resulte tentador en tu propia laptop, los restringe en muchas situaciones, tales como el uso de servidores existentes).
- Aprenda almenos un editor de texto bien. Idealmente Vim (`vi`), como no hay realmente una competencia para la edción aleatorea en un terminal (incluso si usted usa Emacs, un gran IDE, o un editor alternativo (hipster) moderno la mayor parte del tiempo).
- Conozca como leer la documentation con `man` (Para curiosos, `man man` lista las secciones enumeradas, ej. 1 es comandos "regulares", 5 son archivos/convenciones, y 8 are para administración). En en las páginas de man `apropos`. Conozca que alguno de los comandos no son ejecutables, paro son Bash builtins, y que ouede obtener ayuda sobre ellos con `help` y `help -d`.
- Aprenda sobre expansión de archivos glob con `*` (y tal vez `?` y `{`...`}`) y quoting y la diferencia entre doble `"` y simple `'` quotes. (Ver mas en expansión variable más abajo.)
- Adminisración de archivos básica: `ls` y `ls -l` (en particular, aprenda el significado de cada columna in `ls -l`), `less`, `head`, `tail` y `tail -f` (o incluso mejor, `less +F`), `ln` y `ln -s` (aprenda las diferencias y ventajas entre hard y soft links), `chown`, `chmod`, `du` (para un rápido resumen del uso del disco: `du -sk *`). Para administración de filesystem, `df`, `mount`, `fdisk`, `mkfs`, `lsblk`.
- Aprenda el uso de `apt-get`, `yum`, `dnf` o `pacman` (dependiendo de la dismtribución "distro") para buscar e instalar paquetes. Y asegurate que tienes `pip` para instalar la herramienta de linea de comando basada en Python (un poco más abajo esta super fácil para instalar vía `pip`).
- En Bash, se usa **ctrl-w** para borrar la última palabra, y **ctrl-u** para borrar to delete todo el camino hasta el inicio de la línea. Se usa **alt-b** y **alt-f** para moverse entre letras, **ctrl-k** para eliminar hasta el final de la línea, **ctrl-l** para limpiar la panatalla. Ver `man readline` para todos los atajos de teclado por defecto en Bash. Son una gran cantidad. Por ejemplo **alt-.** cicla, a través, de los comandos previos, y **alt-*** expande un glob.
- Para ver los últimos comandos, `history`. También existen abreviaciones, tales como, `!$` (último argumento) y `!!` último comando, auque sin facílmente remplazados con **ctrl-r** y **alt-.**.
- Si estas a mitad de camino de escritura de un comando pero cambias de opinión, presiona **alt-#** para agregar un `#` al princio y lo agrega como comantario (o usar **ctrl-a**, **#**, **enter**). Para que puedas entonces regresar a este luego vía comando historyYou can then return to it later via command history.
-`Se usa `xargs` (or `parallel`). Este es muy poderoso. Nota: tú puedes controlar muchos items por ejecutados por línea (`-L`) tamabién, es conocido como paralelismo (`-P`). Si no estas seguro, esto puede ser la cosa correcta, usa `xargs echo` primero. También, `-I{}` es comodo. Ejemplos:
- Know the various signals you can send processes. For example, to suspend a process, use `kill -STOP [pid]`. For the full list, see `man 7 signal`
- Use `nohup` or `disown` if you want a background process to keep running forever.
- Check what processes are listening via `netstat -lntp` or `ss -plat` (for TCP; add `-u` for UDP).
- See also `lsof` for open sockets and files.
- In Bash scripts, use `set -x` for debugging output. Use strict modes whenever possible. Use `set -e` to abort on errors. Use `set -o pipefail` as well, to be strict about errors (though this topic is a bit subtle). For more involved scripts, also use `trap`.
- In Bash scripts, subshells (written with parentheses) are convenient ways to group commands. A common example is to temporarily move to a different working directory, e.g.
```bash
# do something in current dir
(cd /some/other/dir && other-command)
# continue in original dir
```
- In Bash, note there are lots of kinds of variable expansion. Checking a variable exists: `${name:?error message}`. For example, if a Bash script requires a single argument, just write `input_file=${1:?usage: $0 input_file}`. Arithmetic expansion: `i=$(( (i + 1) % 5 ))`. Sequences: `{1..10}`. Trimming of strings: `${var%suffix}` and `${var#prefix}`. For example if `var=foo.pdf`, then `echo ${var%.pdf}.txt` prints `foo.txt`.
- The output of a command can be treated like a file via `<(some command)`. For example, compare local `/etc/hosts` with a remote one:
```sh
diff /etc/hosts <(ssh somehost cat /etc/hosts)
```
- Know about "here documents" in Bash, as in `cat <<EOF ...`.
- In Bash, redirect both standard output and standard error via: `some-command >logfile 2>&1`. Often, to ensure a command does not leave an open file handle to standard input, tying it to the terminal you are in, it is also good practice to add `</dev/null`.
- Use `man ascii` for a good ASCII table, with hex and decimal values. For general encoding info, `man unicode`, `man utf-8`, and `man latin1` are helpful.
- Use `screen` or `tmux` to multiplex the screen, especially useful on remote ssh sessions and to detach and re-attach to a session. A more minimal alternative for session persistence only is `dtach`.
- In ssh, knowing how to port tunnel with `-L` or `-D` (and occasionally `-R`) is useful, e.g. to access web sites from a remote server.
- It can be useful to make a few optimizations to your ssh configuration; for example, this `~/.ssh/config` contains settings to avoid dropped connections in certain network environments, use compression (which is helpful with scp over low-bandwidth connections), and multiplex channels to the same server with a local control file:
```
TCPKeepAlive=yes
ServerAliveInterval=15
ServerAliveCountMax=6
Compression=yes
ControlMaster auto
ControlPath /tmp/%r@%h:%p
ControlPersist yes
```
- A few other options relevant to ssh are security sensitive and should be enabled with care, e.g. per subnet or host or in trusted networks: `StrictHostKeyChecking=no`, `ForwardAgent=yes`
- To get the permissions on a file in octal form, which is useful for system configuration but not available in `ls` and easy to bungle, use something like
```sh
stat -c '%A %a %n' /etc/timezone
```
- For interactive selection of values from the output of another command, use [`percol`](https://github.com/mooz/percol).
- For interaction with files based on the output of another command (like `git`), use `fpp` ([PathPicker](https://github.com/facebook/PathPicker)).
- For a simple web server for all files in the current directory (and subdirs), available to anyone on your network, use:
`python -m SimpleHTTPServer 7777` (for port 7777 and Python 2) and `python -m http.server 7777` (for port 7777 and Python 3).
## Processing files and data
- To locate a file by name in the current directory, `find . -iname '*something*'` (or similar). To find a file anywhere by name, use `locate something` (but bear in mind `updatedb` may not have indexed recently created files).
- For general searching through source or data files (more advanced than `grep -r`), use [`ag`](https://github.com/ggreer/the_silver_searcher).
- To convert HTML to text: `lynx -dump -stdin`
- For Markdown, HTML, and all kinds of document conversion, try [`pandoc`](http://pandoc.org/).
- If you must handle XML, `xmlstarlet` is old but good.
- For JSON, use `jq`.
- For Excel or CSV files, [csvkit](https://github.com/onyxfish/csvkit) provides `in2csv`, `csvcut`, `csvjoin`, `csvgrep`, etc.
- For Amazon S3, [`s3cmd`](https://github.com/s3tools/s3cmd) is convenient and [`s4cmd`](https://github.com/bloomreach/s4cmd) is faster. Amazon's [`aws`](https://github.com/aws/aws-cli) is essential for other AWS-related tasks.
- Know about `sort` and `uniq`, including uniq's `-u` and `-d` options -- see one-liners below.
- Know about `cut`, `paste`, and `join` to manipulate text files. Many people use `cut` but forget about `join`.
- Know about `wc` to count newlines (`-l`), characters (`-m`), words (`-w`) and bytes (`-c`).
- Know about `tee` to copy from stdin to a file and also to stdout, as in `ls -al | tee file.txt`.
- Know that locale affects a lot of command line tools in subtle ways, including sorting order (collation) and performance. Most Linux installations will set `LANG` or other locale variables to a local setting like US English. But be aware sorting will change if you change locale. And know i18n routines can make sort or other commands run *many times* slower. In some situations (such as the set operations or uniqueness operations below) you can safely ignore slow i18n routines entirely and use traditional byte-based sort order, using `export LC_ALL=C`.
- Know basic `awk` and `sed` for simple data munging. For example, summing all numbers in the third column of a text file: `awk '{ x += $3 } END { print x }'`. This is probably 3X faster and 3X shorter than equivalent Python.
- To replace all occurrences of a string in place, in one or more files:
- To rename many files at once according to a pattern, use `rename`. For complex renames, [`repren`](https://github.com/jlevy/repren) may help.
```sh
# Recover backup files foo.bak -> foo:
rename 's/\.bak$//' *.bak
# Full rename of filenames, directories, and contents foo -> bar:
repren --full --preserve-case --from foo --to bar .
```
- Use `shuf` to shuffle or select random lines from a file.
- Know `sort`'s options. Know how keys work (`-t` and `-k`). In particular, watch out that you need to write `-k1,1` to sort by only the first field; `-k1` means sort according to the whole line.
- Stable sort (`sort -s`) can be useful. For example, to sort first by field 2, then secondarily by field 1, you can use `sort -k1,1 | sort -s -k2,2`
- If you ever need to write a tab literal in a command line in Bash (e.g. for the -t argument to sort), press **ctrl-v****[Tab]** or write `$'\t'` (the latter is better as you can copy/paste it).
- The standard tools for patching source code are `diff` and `patch`. See also `diffstat` for summary statistics of a diff. Note `diff -r` works for entire directories. Use `diff -r tree1 tree2 | diffstat` for a summary of changes.
- For binary files, use `hd` for simple hex dumps and `bvi` for binary editing.
- Also for binary files, `strings` (plus `grep`, etc.) lets you find bits of text.
- For binary diffs (delta compression), use `xdelta3`.
- To convert text encodings, try `iconv`. Or `uconv` for more advanced use; it supports some advanced Unicode things. For example, this command lowercases and removes all accents (by expanding and dropping them):
- To split files into pieces, see `split` (to split by size) and `csplit` (to split by a pattern).
- Use `zless`, `zmore`, `zcat`, and `zgrep` to operate on compressed files.
## System debugging
- For web debugging, `curl` and `curl -I` are handy, or their `wget` equivalents, or the more modern [`httpie`](https://github.com/jakubroztocil/httpie).
- To know disk/cpu/network status, use `iostat`, `netstat`, `top` (or the better `htop`), and (especially) `dstat`. Good for getting a quick idea of what's happening on a system.
- For a more in-depth system overview, use [`glances`](https://github.com/nicolargo/glances). It presents you with several system level statistics in one terminal window. Very helpful for quickly checking on various subsystems.
- To know memory status, run and understand the output of `free` and `vmstat`. In particular, be aware the "cached" value is memory held by the Linux kernel as file cache, so effectively counts toward the "free" value.
- Java system debugging is a different kettle of fish, but a simple trick on Oracle's and some other JVMs is that you can run `kill -3 <pid>` and a full stack trace and heap summary (including generational garbage collection details, which can be highly informative) will be dumped to stderr/logs.
- Use `mtr` as a better traceroute, to identify network issues.
- For looking at why a disk is full, `ncdu` saves time over the usual commands like `du -sh *`.
- To find which socket or process is using bandwidth, try `iftop` or `nethogs`.
- The `ab` tool (comes with Apache) is helpful for quick-and-dirty checking of web server performance. For more complex load testing, try `siege`.
- For more serious network debugging, `wireshark`, `tshark`, or `ngrep`.
- Know about `strace` and `ltrace`. These can be helpful if a program is failing, hanging, or crashing, and you don't know why, or if you want to get a general idea of performance. Note the profiling option (`-c`), and the ability to attach to a running process (`-p`).
- Know about `ldd` to check shared libraries etc.
- Know how to connect to a running process with `gdb` and get its stack traces.
- Use `/proc`. It's amazingly helpful sometimes when debugging live problems. Examples: `/proc/cpuinfo`, `/proc/xxx/cwd`, `/proc/xxx/exe`, `/proc/xxx/fd/`, `/proc/xxx/smaps`.
- When debugging why something went wrong in the past, `sar` can be very helpful. It shows historic statistics on CPU, memory, network, etc.
- For deeper systems and performance analyses, look at `stap` ([SystemTap](https://sourceware.org/systemtap/wiki)), [`perf`](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perf_(Linux)), and [`sysdig`](https://github.com/draios/sysdig).
- Confirm what Linux distribution you're using (works on most distros): `lsb_release -a`
- Use `dmesg` whenever something's acting really funny (it could be hardware or driver issues).
## One-liners
A few examples of piecing together commands:
- It is remarkably helpful sometimes that you can do set intersection, union, and difference of text files via `sort`/`uniq`. Suppose `a` and `b` are text files that are already uniqued. This is fast, and works on files of arbitrary size, up to many gigabytes. (Sort is not limited by memory, though you may need to use the `-T` option if `/tmp` is on a small root partition.) See also the note about `LC_ALL` above and `sort`'s `-u` option (left out for clarity below).
```sh
cat a b | sort | uniq > c # c is a union b
cat a b | sort | uniq -d > c # c is a intersect b
cat a b b | sort | uniq -u > c # c is set difference a - b
```
- Use `grep . *` to visually examine all contents of all files in a directory, e.g. for directories filled with config settings, like `/sys`, `/proc`, `/etc`.
- Summing all numbers in the third column of a text file (this is probably 3X faster and 3X less code than equivalent Python):
```sh
awk '{ x += $3 } END { print x }' myfile
```
- If want to see sizes/dates on a tree of files, this is like a recursive `ls -l` but is easier to read than `ls -lR`:
```sh
find . -type f -ls
```
- Use `xargs` or `parallel` whenever you can. Note you can control how many items execute per line (`-L`) as well as parallelism (`-P`). If you're not sure if it'll do the right thing, use xargs echo first. Also, `-I{}` is handy. Examples:
```sh
find . -name '*.py' | xargs grep some_function
cat hosts | xargs -I{} ssh root@{} hostname
```
- Say you have a text file, like a web server log, and a certain value that appears on some lines, such as an `acct_id` parameter that is present in the URL. If you want a tally of how many requests for each `acct_id`:
xmlstarlet sel -t -v "(html/body/ul/li[count(p)>0])[$RANDOM mod last()+1]" |
xmlstarlet unesc | fmt -80
}
```
## Obscure but useful
-`expr`: perform arithmetic or boolean operations or evaluate regular expressions
-`m4`: simple macro processor
-`yes`: print a string a lot
-`cal`: nice calendar
-`env`: run a command (useful in scripts)
-`printenv`: print out environment variables (useful in debugging and scripts)
-`look`: find English words (or lines in a file) beginning with a string
-`cut `and `paste` and `join`: data manipulation
-`fmt`: format text paragraphs
-`pr`: format text into pages/columns
-`fold`: wrap lines of text
-`column`: format text into columns or tables
-`expand` and `unexpand`: convert between tabs and spaces
-`nl`: add line numbers
-`seq`: print numbers
-`bc`: calculator
-`factor`: factor integers
-`gpg`: encrypt and sign files
-`toe`: table of terminfo entries
-`nc`: network debugging and data transfer
-`socat`: socket relay and tcp port forwarder (similar to `netcat`)
-`slurm`: network trafic visualization
-`dd`: moving data between files or devices
-`file`: identify type of a file
-`tree`: display directories and subdirectories as a nesting tree; like `ls` but recursive
-`stat`: file info
-`tac`: print files in reverse
-`shuf`: random selection of lines from a file
-`comm`: compare sorted files line by line
-`hd` and `bvi`: dump or edit binary files
-`strings`: extract text from binary files
-`tr`: character translation or manipulation
-`iconv` or `uconv`: conversion for text encodings
-`split `and `csplit`: splitting files
-`units`: unit conversions and calculations; converts furlongs per fortnight to twips per blink (see also `/usr/share/units/definitions.units`)
-`7z`: high-ratio file compression
-`ldd`: dynamic library info
-`nm`: symbols from object files
-`ab`: benchmarking web servers
-`strace`: system call debugging
-`mtr`: better traceroute for network debugging
-`cssh`: visual concurrent shell
-`rsync`: sync files and folders over SSH
-`wireshark` and `tshark`: packet capture and network debugging
-`ngrep`: grep for the network layer
-`host` and `dig`: DNS lookups
-`lsof`: process file descriptor and socket info
-`dstat`: useful system stats
- [`glances`](https://github.com/nicolargo/glances): high level, multi-subsystem overview
-`iostat`: CPU and disk usage stats
-`htop`: improved version of top
-`last`: login history
-`w`: who's logged on
-`id`: user/group identity info
-`sar`: historic system stats
-`iftop` or `nethogs`: network utilization by socket or process
-`ss`: socket statistics
-`dmesg`: boot and system error messages
-`hdparm`: SATA/ATA disk manipulation/performance
-`lsb_release`: Linux distribution info
-`lsblk`: List block devices: a tree view of your disks and disk paritions
-`lshw`: hardware information
-`fortune`, `ddate`, and `sl`: um, well, it depends on whether you consider steam locomotives and Zippy quotations "useful"
## More resources
- [awesome-shell](https://github.com/alebcay/awesome-shell): A curated list of shell tools and resources.
- [Strict mode](http://redsymbol.net/articles/unofficial-bash-strict-mode/) for writing better shell scripts.
## Disclaimer
With the exception of very small tasks, code is written so others can read it. With power comes responsibility. The fact you *can* do something in Bash doesn't necessarily mean you should! ;)
