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2.3 時間複雜度
執行時間可以直觀且準確地反映演算法的效率。如果我們想準確預估一段程式碼的執行時間,應該如何操作呢?
- 確定執行平臺,包括硬體配置、程式語言、系統環境等,這些因素都會影響程式碼的執行效率。
- 評估各種計算操作所需的執行時間,例如加法操作
+
需要 1 ns ,乘法操作*
需要 10 ns ,列印操作print()
需要 5 ns 等。 - 統計程式碼中所有的計算操作,並將所有操作的執行時間求和,從而得到執行時間。
例如在以下程式碼中,輸入資料大小為 n
:
=== "Python"
```python title=""
# 在某執行平臺下
def algorithm(n: int):
a = 2 # 1 ns
a = a + 1 # 1 ns
a = a * 2 # 10 ns
# 迴圈 n 次
for _ in range(n): # 1 ns
print(0) # 5 ns
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 2; // 1 ns
a = a + 1; // 1 ns
a = a * 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
cout << 0 << endl; // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 2; // 1 ns
a = a + 1; // 1 ns
a = a * 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
System.out.println(0); // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void Algorithm(int n) {
int a = 2; // 1 ns
a = a + 1; // 1 ns
a = a * 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
Console.WriteLine(0); // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
func algorithm(n int) {
a := 2 // 1 ns
a = a + 1 // 1 ns
a = a * 2 // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for i := 0; i < n; i++ { // 1 ns
fmt.Println(a) // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
func algorithm(n: Int) {
var a = 2 // 1 ns
a = a + 1 // 1 ns
a = a * 2 // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for _ in 0 ..< n { // 1 ns
print(0) // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
function algorithm(n) {
var a = 2; // 1 ns
a = a + 1; // 1 ns
a = a * 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for(let i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
console.log(0); // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
function algorithm(n: number): void {
var a: number = 2; // 1 ns
a = a + 1; // 1 ns
a = a * 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for(let i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
console.log(0); // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 2; // 1 ns
a = a + 1; // 1 ns
a = a * 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
print(0); // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
fn algorithm(n: i32) {
let mut a = 2; // 1 ns
a = a + 1; // 1 ns
a = a * 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for _ in 0..n { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
println!("{}", 0); // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "C"
```c title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 2; // 1 ns
a = a + 1; // 1 ns
a = a * 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
printf("%d", 0); // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
fun algorithm(n: Int) {
var a = 2 // 1 ns
a = a + 1 // 1 ns
a = a * 2 // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for (i in 0..<n) { // 1 ns ,每輪都要執行 i++
println(0) // 5 ns
}
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title=""
# 在某執行平臺下
def algorithm(n)
a = 2 # 1 ns
a = a + 1 # 1 ns
a = a * 2 # 10 ns
# 迴圈 n 次
(0...n).each do # 1 ns
puts 0 # 5 ns
end
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title=""
// 在某執行平臺下
fn algorithm(n: usize) void {
var a: i32 = 2; // 1 ns
a += 1; // 1 ns
a *= 2; // 10 ns
// 迴圈 n 次
for (0..n) |_| { // 1 ns
std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0}); // 5 ns
}
}
```
根據以上方法,可以得到演算法的執行時間為 (6n + 12)
ns :
$$
1 + 1 + 10 + (1 + 5) \times n = 6n + 12
但實際上,統計演算法的執行時間既不合理也不現實。首先,我們不希望將預估時間和執行平臺繫結,因為演算法需要在各種不同的平臺上執行。其次,我們很難獲知每種操作的執行時間,這給預估過程帶來了極大的難度。
2.3.1 統計時間增長趨勢
時間複雜度分析統計的不是演算法執行時間,而是演算法執行時間隨著資料量變大時的增長趨勢。
“時間增長趨勢”這個概念比較抽象,我們透過一個例子來加以理解。假設輸入資料大小為 n
,給定三個演算法 A
、B
和 C
:
=== "Python"
```python title=""
# 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
def algorithm_A(n: int):
print(0)
# 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
def algorithm_B(n: int):
for _ in range(n):
print(0)
# 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
def algorithm_C(n: int):
for _ in range(1000000):
print(0)
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_A(int n) {
cout << 0 << endl;
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void algorithm_B(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
cout << 0 << endl;
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_C(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
cout << 0 << endl;
}
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_A(int n) {
System.out.println(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void algorithm_B(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
System.out.println(0);
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_C(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
System.out.println(0);
}
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void AlgorithmA(int n) {
Console.WriteLine(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void AlgorithmB(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
Console.WriteLine(0);
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void AlgorithmC(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
Console.WriteLine(0);
}
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
func algorithm_A(n int) {
fmt.Println(0)
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
func algorithm_B(n int) {
for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
fmt.Println(0)
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
func algorithm_C(n int) {
for i := 0; i < 1000000; i++ {
fmt.Println(0)
}
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
func algorithmA(n: Int) {
print(0)
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
func algorithmB(n: Int) {
for _ in 0 ..< n {
print(0)
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
func algorithmC(n: Int) {
for _ in 0 ..< 1_000_000 {
print(0)
}
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
function algorithm_A(n) {
console.log(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
function algorithm_B(n) {
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
console.log(0);
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
function algorithm_C(n) {
for (let i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
console.log(0);
}
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
function algorithm_A(n: number): void {
console.log(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
function algorithm_B(n: number): void {
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
console.log(0);
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
function algorithm_C(n: number): void {
for (let i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
console.log(0);
}
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithmA(int n) {
print(0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void algorithmB(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
print(0);
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithmC(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
print(0);
}
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
fn algorithm_A(n: i32) {
println!("{}", 0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
fn algorithm_B(n: i32) {
for _ in 0..n {
println!("{}", 0);
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
fn algorithm_C(n: i32) {
for _ in 0..1000000 {
println!("{}", 0);
}
}
```
=== "C"
```c title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_A(int n) {
printf("%d", 0);
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
void algorithm_B(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
printf("%d", 0);
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
void algorithm_C(int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; i++) {
printf("%d", 0);
}
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
fun algoritm_A(n: Int) {
println(0)
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
fun algorithm_B(n: Int) {
for (i in 0..<n){
println(0)
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
fun algorithm_C(n: Int) {
for (i in 0..<1000000) {
println(0)
}
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title=""
# 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
def algorithm_A(n)
puts 0
end
# 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
def algorithm_B(n)
(0...n).each { puts 0 }
end
# 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
def algorithm_C(n)
(0...1_000_000).each { puts 0 }
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title=""
// 演算法 A 的時間複雜度:常數階
fn algorithm_A(n: usize) void {
_ = n;
std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0});
}
// 演算法 B 的時間複雜度:線性階
fn algorithm_B(n: i32) void {
for (0..n) |_| {
std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0});
}
}
// 演算法 C 的時間複雜度:常數階
fn algorithm_C(n: i32) void {
_ = n;
for (0..1000000) |_| {
std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0});
}
}
```
圖 2-7 展示了以上三個演算法函式的時間複雜度。
- 演算法
A
只有1
個列印操作,演算法執行時間不隨著n
增大而增長。我們稱此演算法的時間複雜度為“常數階”。 - 演算法
B
中的列印操作需要迴圈n
次,演算法執行時間隨著n
增大呈線性增長。此演算法的時間複雜度被稱為“線性階”。 - 演算法
C
中的列印操作需要迴圈1000000
次,雖然執行時間很長,但它與輸入資料大小n
無關。因此C
的時間複雜度和A
相同,仍為“常數階”。
圖 2-7 演算法 A、B 和 C 的時間增長趨勢
相較於直接統計演算法的執行時間,時間複雜度分析有哪些特點呢?
- 時間複雜度能夠有效評估演算法效率。例如,演算法
B
的執行時間呈線性增長,在n > 1
時比演算法A
更慢,在n > 1000000
時比演算法C
更慢。事實上,只要輸入資料大小n
足夠大,複雜度為“常數階”的演算法一定優於“線性階”的演算法,這正是時間增長趨勢的含義。 - 時間複雜度的推算方法更簡便。顯然,執行平臺和計算操作型別都與演算法執行時間的增長趨勢無關。因此在時間複雜度分析中,我們可以簡單地將所有計算操作的執行時間視為相同的“單位時間”,從而將“計算操作執行時間統計”簡化為“計算操作數量統計”,這樣一來估算難度就大大降低了。
- 時間複雜度也存在一定的侷限性。例如,儘管演算法
A
和C
的時間複雜度相同,但實際執行時間差別很大。同樣,儘管演算法B
的時間複雜度比C
高,但在輸入資料大小n
較小時,演算法B
明顯優於演算法C
。在這些情況下,我們很難僅憑時間複雜度判斷演算法效率的高低。當然,儘管存在上述問題,複雜度分析仍然是評判演算法效率最有效且常用的方法。
2.3.2 函式漸近上界
給定一個輸入大小為 n
的函式:
=== "Python"
```python title=""
def algorithm(n: int):
a = 1 # +1
a = a + 1 # +1
a = a * 2 # +1
# 迴圈 n 次
for i in range(n): # +1
print(0) # +1
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +1
a = a + 1; // +1
a = a * 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
cout << 0 << endl; // +1
}
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +1
a = a + 1; // +1
a = a * 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
System.out.println(0); // +1
}
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title=""
void Algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +1
a = a + 1; // +1
a = a * 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
Console.WriteLine(0); // +1
}
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title=""
func algorithm(n int) {
a := 1 // +1
a = a + 1 // +1
a = a * 2 // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for i := 0; i < n; i++ { // +1
fmt.Println(a) // +1
}
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title=""
func algorithm(n: Int) {
var a = 1 // +1
a = a + 1 // +1
a = a * 2 // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for _ in 0 ..< n { // +1
print(0) // +1
}
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title=""
function algorithm(n) {
var a = 1; // +1
a += 1; // +1
a *= 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for(let i = 0; i < n; i++){ // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
console.log(0); // +1
}
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title=""
function algorithm(n: number): void{
var a: number = 1; // +1
a += 1; // +1
a *= 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for(let i = 0; i < n; i++){ // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
console.log(0); // +1
}
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +1
a = a + 1; // +1
a = a * 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
print(0); // +1
}
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title=""
fn algorithm(n: i32) {
let mut a = 1; // +1
a = a + 1; // +1
a = a * 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for _ in 0..n { // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
println!("{}", 0); // +1
}
}
```
=== "C"
```c title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +1
a = a + 1; // +1
a = a * 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) { // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
printf("%d", 0); // +1
}
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title=""
fun algorithm(n: Int) {
var a = 1 // +1
a = a + 1 // +1
a = a * 2 // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for (i in 0..<n) { // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
println(0) // +1
}
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title=""
def algorithm(n)
a = 1 # +1
a = a + 1 # +1
a = a * 2 # +1
# 迴圈 n 次
(0...n).each do # +1
puts 0 # +1
end
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title=""
fn algorithm(n: usize) void {
var a: i32 = 1; // +1
a += 1; // +1
a *= 2; // +1
// 迴圈 n 次
for (0..n) |_| { // +1(每輪都執行 i ++)
std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0}); // +1
}
}
```
設演算法的操作數量是一個關於輸入資料大小 n
的函式,記為 T(n)
,則以上函式的操作數量為:
$$
T(n) = 3 + 2n
T(n)
是一次函式,說明其執行時間的增長趨勢是線性的,因此它的時間複雜度是線性階。
我們將線性階的時間複雜度記為 O(n)
,這個數學符號稱為大 O
記號(big-O
notation),表示函式 T(n)
的漸近上界(asymptotic upper bound)。
時間複雜度分析本質上是計算“操作數量 $T(n)$”的漸近上界,它具有明確的數學定義。
!!! abstract "函式漸近上界"
若存在正實數 $c$ 和實數 $n_0$ ,使得對於所有的 $n > n_0$ ,均有 $T(n) \leq c \cdot f(n)$ ,則可認為 $f(n)$ 給出了 $T(n)$ 的一個漸近上界,記為 $T(n) = O(f(n))$ 。
如圖 2-8 所示,計算漸近上界就是尋找一個函式 f(n)
,使得當 n
趨向於無窮大時,T(n)
和 f(n)
處於相同的增長級別,僅相差一個常數項 c
的倍數。
圖 2-8 函式的漸近上界
2.3.3 推算方法
漸近上界的數學味兒有點重,如果你感覺沒有完全理解,也無須擔心。我們可以先掌握推算方法,在不斷的實踐中,就可以逐漸領悟其數學意義。
根據定義,確定 f(n)
之後,我們便可得到時間複雜度 O(f(n))
。那麼如何確定漸近上界 f(n)
呢?總體分為兩步:首先統計操作數量,然後判斷漸近上界。
1. 第一步:統計操作數量
針對程式碼,逐行從上到下計算即可。然而,由於上述 c \cdot f(n)
中的常數項 c
可以取任意大小,因此操作數量 T(n)
中的各種係數、常數項都可以忽略。根據此原則,可以總結出以下計數簡化技巧。
- 忽略
T(n)
中的常數項。因為它們都與n
無關,所以對時間複雜度不產生影響。 - 省略所有係數。例如,迴圈
2n
次、5n + 1
次等,都可以簡化記為n
次,因為n
前面的係數對時間複雜度沒有影響。 - 迴圈巢狀時使用乘法。總操作數量等於外層迴圈和內層迴圈操作數量之積,每一層迴圈依然可以分別套用第
1.
點和第2.
點的技巧。
給定一個函式,我們可以用上述技巧來統計操作數量:
=== "Python"
```python title=""
def algorithm(n: int):
a = 1 # +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n # +0(技巧 1)
# +n(技巧 2)
for i in range(5 * n + 1):
print(0)
# +n*n(技巧 3)
for i in range(2 * n):
for j in range(n + 1):
print(0)
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n; // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
cout << 0 << endl;
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
cout << 0 << endl;
}
}
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n; // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
System.out.println(0);
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
System.out.println(0);
}
}
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title=""
void Algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n; // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
Console.WriteLine(0);
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
Console.WriteLine(0);
}
}
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title=""
func algorithm(n int) {
a := 1 // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for i := 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++ {
fmt.Println(0)
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for i := 0; i < 2 * n; i++ {
for j := 0; j < n + 1; j++ {
fmt.Println(0)
}
}
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title=""
func algorithm(n: Int) {
var a = 1 // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for _ in 0 ..< (5 * n + 1) {
print(0)
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for _ in 0 ..< (2 * n) {
for _ in 0 ..< (n + 1) {
print(0)
}
}
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title=""
function algorithm(n) {
let a = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n; // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for (let i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
console.log(0);
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for (let i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
for (let j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
console.log(0);
}
}
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title=""
function algorithm(n: number): void {
let a = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n; // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for (let i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
console.log(0);
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for (let i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
for (let j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
console.log(0);
}
}
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n; // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
print(0);
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
print(0);
}
}
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title=""
fn algorithm(n: i32) {
let mut a = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n; // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for i in 0..(5 * n + 1) {
println!("{}", 0);
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for i in 0..(2 * n) {
for j in 0..(n + 1) {
println!("{}", 0);
}
}
}
```
=== "C"
```c title=""
void algorithm(int n) {
int a = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n; // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for (int i = 0; i < 5 * n + 1; i++) {
printf("%d", 0);
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for (int i = 0; i < 2 * n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n + 1; j++) {
printf("%d", 0);
}
}
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title=""
fun algorithm(n: Int) {
var a = 1 // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for (i in 0..<5 * n + 1) {
println(0)
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for (i in 0..<2 * n) {
for (j in 0..<n + 1) {
println(0)
}
}
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title=""
def algorithm(n)
a = 1 # +0(技巧 1)
a = a + n # +0(技巧 1)
# +n(技巧 2)
(0...(5 * n + 1)).each do { puts 0 }
# +n*n(技巧 3)
(0...(2 * n)).each do
(0...(n + 1)).each do { puts 0 }
end
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title=""
fn algorithm(n: usize) void {
var a: i32 = 1; // +0(技巧 1)
a = a + @as(i32, @intCast(n)); // +0(技巧 1)
// +n(技巧 2)
for(0..(5 * n + 1)) |_| {
std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0});
}
// +n*n(技巧 3)
for(0..(2 * n)) |_| {
for(0..(n + 1)) |_| {
std.debug.print("{}\n", .{0});
}
}
}
```
以下公式展示了使用上述技巧前後的統計結果,兩者推算出的時間複雜度都為 O(n^2)
。
$$
\begin{aligned}
T(n) & = 2n(n + 1) + (5n + 1) + 2 & \text{完整統計 (-.-|||)} \newline
& = 2n^2 + 7n + 3 \newline
T(n) & = n^2 + n & \text{偷懶統計 (o.O)}
\end{aligned}
2. 第二步:判斷漸近上界
時間複雜度由 T(n)
中最高階的項來決定。這是因為在 n
趨於無窮大時,最高階的項將發揮主導作用,其他項的影響都可以忽略。
表 2-2 展示了一些例子,其中一些誇張的值是為了強調“係數無法撼動階數”這一結論。當 n
趨於無窮大時,這些常數變得無足輕重。
表 2-2 不同操作數量對應的時間複雜度
操作數量 T(n) |
時間複雜度 O(f(n)) |
---|---|
100000 |
O(1) |
3n + 2 |
O(n) |
2n^2 + 3n + 2 |
O(n^2) |
n^3 + 10000n^2 |
O(n^3) |
2^n + 10000n^{10000} |
O(2^n) |
2.3.4 常見型別
設輸入資料大小為 n
,常見的時間複雜度型別如圖 2-9 所示(按照從低到高的順序排列)。
$$
\begin{aligned}
O(1) < O(\log n) < O(n) < O(n \log n) < O(n^2) < O(2^n) < O(n!) \newline
\text{常數階} < \text{對數階} < \text{線性階} < \text{線性對數階} < \text{平方階} < \text{指數階} < \text{階乘階}
\end{aligned}
圖 2-9 常見的時間複雜度型別
1. 常數階 O(1)
常數階的操作數量與輸入資料大小 n
無關,即不隨著 n
的變化而變化。
在以下函式中,儘管操作數量 size
可能很大,但由於其與輸入資料大小 n
無關,因此時間複雜度仍為 O(1)
:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def constant(n: int) -> int:
"""常數階"""
count = 0
size = 100000
for _ in range(size):
count += 1
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 常數階 */
int constant(int n) {
int count = 0;
int size = 100000;
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 常數階 */
int constant(int n) {
int count = 0;
int size = 100000;
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 常數階 */
int Constant(int n) {
int count = 0;
int size = 100000;
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 常數階 */
func constant(n int) int {
count := 0
size := 100000
for i := 0; i < size; i++ {
count++
}
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 常數階 */
func constant(n: Int) -> Int {
var count = 0
let size = 100_000
for _ in 0 ..< size {
count += 1
}
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 常數階 */
function constant(n) {
let count = 0;
const size = 100000;
for (let i = 0; i < size; i++) count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 常數階 */
function constant(n: number): number {
let count = 0;
const size = 100000;
for (let i = 0; i < size; i++) count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 常數階 */
int constant(int n) {
int count = 0;
int size = 100000;
for (var i = 0; i < size; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 常數階 */
fn constant(n: i32) -> i32 {
_ = n;
let mut count = 0;
let size = 100_000;
for _ in 0..size {
count += 1;
}
count
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 常數階 */
int constant(int n) {
int count = 0;
int size = 100000;
int i = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 常數階 */
fun constant(n: Int): Int {
var count = 0
val size = 100000
for (i in 0..<size)
count++
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 常數階 ###
def constant(n)
count = 0
size = 100000
(0...size).each { count += 1 }
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 常數階
fn constant(n: i32) i32 {
_ = n;
var count: i32 = 0;
const size: i32 = 100_000;
var i: i32 = 0;
while(i<size) : (i += 1) {
count += 1;
}
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
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2. 線性階 O(n)
線性階的操作數量相對於輸入資料大小 n
以線性級別增長。線性階通常出現在單層迴圈中:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def linear(n: int) -> int:
"""線性階"""
count = 0
for _ in range(n):
count += 1
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 線性階 */
int linear(int n) {
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 線性階 */
int linear(int n) {
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 線性階 */
int Linear(int n) {
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 線性階 */
func linear(n int) int {
count := 0
for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
count++
}
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 線性階 */
func linear(n: Int) -> Int {
var count = 0
for _ in 0 ..< n {
count += 1
}
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 線性階 */
function linear(n) {
let count = 0;
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 線性階 */
function linear(n: number): number {
let count = 0;
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) count++;
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 線性階 */
int linear(int n) {
int count = 0;
for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 線性階 */
fn linear(n: i32) -> i32 {
let mut count = 0;
for _ in 0..n {
count += 1;
}
count
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 線性階 */
int linear(int n) {
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 線性階 */
fun linear(n: Int): Int {
var count = 0
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (i in 0..<n)
count++
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 線性階 ###
def linear(n)
count = 0
(0...n).each { count += 1 }
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 線性階
fn linear(n: i32) i32 {
var count: i32 = 0;
var i: i32 = 0;
while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
count += 1;
}
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
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<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20linear%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E9%9A%8E%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E9%9A%8E%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
走訪陣列和走訪鏈結串列等操作的時間複雜度均為 O(n)
,其中 n
為陣列或鏈結串列的長度:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def array_traversal(nums: list[int]) -> int:
"""線性階(走訪陣列)"""
count = 0
# 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for num in nums:
count += 1
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int arrayTraversal(vector<int> &nums) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (int num : nums) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int arrayTraversal(int[] nums) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (int num : nums) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int ArrayTraversal(int[] nums) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
foreach (int num in nums) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
func arrayTraversal(nums []int) int {
count := 0
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for range nums {
count++
}
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
func arrayTraversal(nums: [Int]) -> Int {
var count = 0
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for _ in nums {
count += 1
}
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
function arrayTraversal(nums) {
let count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
function arrayTraversal(nums: number[]): number {
let count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int arrayTraversal(List<int> nums) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (var _num in nums) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
fn array_traversal(nums: &[i32]) -> i32 {
let mut count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for _ in nums {
count += 1;
}
count
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
int arrayTraversal(int *nums, int n) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 線性階(走訪陣列) */
fun arrayTraversal(nums: IntArray): Int {
var count = 0
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (num in nums) {
count++
}
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 線性階(走訪陣列)###
def array_traversal(nums)
count = 0
# 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for num in nums
count += 1
end
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 線性階(走訪陣列)
fn arrayTraversal(nums: []i32) i32 {
var count: i32 = 0;
// 迴圈次數與陣列長度成正比
for (nums) |_| {
count += 1;
}
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 459px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20array_traversal%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%B5%B0%E8%A8%AA%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E6%AC%A1%E6%95%B8%E8%88%87%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%E9%95%B7%E5%BA%A6%E6%88%90%E6%AD%A3%E6%AF%94%0A%20%20%20%20for%20num%20in%20nums%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20array_traversal%28%5B0%5D%20%2A%20n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%B5%B0%E8%A8%AA%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20array_traversal%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%B5%B0%E8%A8%AA%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E6%AC%A1%E6%95%B8%E8%88%87%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%E9%95%B7%E5%BA%A6%E6%88%90%E6%AD%A3%E6%AF%94%0A%20%20%20%20for%20num%20in%20nums%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20array_traversal%28%5B0%5D%20%2A%20n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%B5%B0%E8%A8%AA%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
值得注意的是,輸入資料大小 n
需根據輸入資料的型別來具體確定。比如在第一個示例中,變數 n
為輸入資料大小;在第二個示例中,陣列長度 n
為資料大小。
3. 平方階 O(n^2)
平方階的操作數量相對於輸入資料大小 n
以平方級別增長。平方階通常出現在巢狀迴圈中,外層迴圈和內層迴圈的時間複雜度都為 O(n)
,因此總體的時間複雜度為 O(n^2)
:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def quadratic(n: int) -> int:
"""平方階"""
count = 0
# 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for i in range(n):
for j in range(n):
count += 1
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 平方階 */
int quadratic(int n) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
count++;
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 平方階 */
int quadratic(int n) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
count++;
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 平方階 */
int Quadratic(int n) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
count++;
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 平方階 */
func quadratic(n int) int {
count := 0
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
for j := 0; j < n; j++ {
count++
}
}
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 平方階 */
func quadratic(n: Int) -> Int {
var count = 0
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for _ in 0 ..< n {
for _ in 0 ..< n {
count += 1
}
}
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 平方階 */
function quadratic(n) {
let count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) {
count++;
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 平方階 */
function quadratic(n: number): number {
let count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) {
count++;
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 平方階 */
int quadratic(int n) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
count++;
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 平方階 */
fn quadratic(n: i32) -> i32 {
let mut count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for _ in 0..n {
for _ in 0..n {
count += 1;
}
}
count
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 平方階 */
int quadratic(int n) {
int count = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
count++;
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 平方階 */
fun quadratic(n: Int): Int {
var count = 0
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for (i in 0..<n) {
for (j in 0..<n) {
count++
}
}
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 平方階 ###
def quadratic(n)
count = 0
# 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
for i in 0...n
for j in 0...n
count += 1
end
end
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 平方階
fn quadratic(n: i32) i32 {
var count: i32 = 0;
var i: i32 = 0;
// 迴圈次數與資料大小 n 成平方關係
while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
var j: i32 = 0;
while (j < n) : (j += 1) {
count += 1;
}
}
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 477px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20quadratic%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%9A%8E%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E6%AC%A1%E6%95%B8%E8%88%87%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20j%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20quadratic%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%9A%8E%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20quadratic%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%9A%8E%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E6%AC%A1%E6%95%B8%E8%88%87%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%E6%88%90%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20j%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20quadratic%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%9A%8E%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
圖 2-10 對比了常數階、線性階和平方階三種時間複雜度。
圖 2-10 常數階、線性階和平方階的時間複雜度
以泡沫排序為例,外層迴圈執行 n - 1
次,內層迴圈執行 $n-1$、$n-2$、$\dots$、$2$、1
次,平均為 n / 2
次,因此時間複雜度為 O((n - 1) n / 2) = O(n^2)
:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def bubble_sort(nums: list[int]) -> int:
"""平方階(泡沫排序)"""
count = 0 # 計數器
# 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for i in range(len(nums) - 1, 0, -1):
# 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for j in range(i):
if nums[j] > nums[j + 1]:
# 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
tmp: int = nums[j]
nums[j] = nums[j + 1]
nums[j + 1] = tmp
count += 3 # 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int bubbleSort(vector<int> &nums) {
int count = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for (int i = nums.size() - 1; i > 0; i--) {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
int tmp = nums[j];
nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
nums[j + 1] = tmp;
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int bubbleSort(int[] nums) {
int count = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for (int i = nums.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
int tmp = nums[j];
nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
nums[j + 1] = tmp;
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int BubbleSort(int[] nums) {
int count = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for (int i = nums.Length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
(nums[j + 1], nums[j]) = (nums[j], nums[j + 1]);
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
func bubbleSort(nums []int) int {
count := 0 // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for i := len(nums) - 1; i > 0; i-- {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for j := 0; j < i; j++ {
if nums[j] > nums[j+1] {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
tmp := nums[j]
nums[j] = nums[j+1]
nums[j+1] = tmp
count += 3 // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
func bubbleSort(nums: inout [Int]) -> Int {
var count = 0 // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for i in nums.indices.dropFirst().reversed() {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for j in 0 ..< i {
if nums[j] > nums[j + 1] {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
let tmp = nums[j]
nums[j] = nums[j + 1]
nums[j + 1] = tmp
count += 3 // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
function bubbleSort(nums) {
let count = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for (let i = nums.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for (let j = 0; j < i; j++) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
let tmp = nums[j];
nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
nums[j + 1] = tmp;
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
function bubbleSort(nums: number[]): number {
let count = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for (let i = nums.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for (let j = 0; j < i; j++) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
let tmp = nums[j];
nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
nums[j + 1] = tmp;
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int bubbleSort(List<int> nums) {
int count = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for (var i = nums.length - 1; i > 0; i--) {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for (var j = 0; j < i; j++) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
int tmp = nums[j];
nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
nums[j + 1] = tmp;
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
fn bubble_sort(nums: &mut [i32]) -> i32 {
let mut count = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for i in (1..nums.len()).rev() {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for j in 0..i {
if nums[j] > nums[j + 1] {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
let tmp = nums[j];
nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
nums[j + 1] = tmp;
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
count
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
int bubbleSort(int *nums, int n) {
int count = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for (int i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for (int j = 0; j < i; j++) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
int tmp = nums[j];
nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
nums[j + 1] = tmp;
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 平方階(泡沫排序) */
fun bubbleSort(nums: IntArray): Int {
var count = 0 // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for (i in nums.size - 1 downTo 1) {
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for (j in 0..<i) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
nums[j] = nums[j + 1].also { nums[j + 1] = nums[j] }
count += 3 // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 平方階(泡沫排序)###
def bubble_sort(nums)
count = 0 # 計數器
# 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
for i in (nums.length - 1).downto(0)
# 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
for j in 0...i
if nums[j] > nums[j + 1]
# 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
tmp = nums[j]
nums[j] = nums[j + 1]
nums[j + 1] = tmp
count += 3 # 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
end
end
end
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 平方階(泡沫排序)
fn bubbleSort(nums: []i32) i32 {
var count: i32 = 0; // 計數器
// 外迴圈:未排序區間為 [0, i]
var i: i32 = @as(i32, @intCast(nums.len)) - 1;
while (i > 0) : (i -= 1) {
var j: usize = 0;
// 內迴圈:將未排序區間 [0, i] 中的最大元素交換至該區間的最右端
while (j < i) : (j += 1) {
if (nums[j] > nums[j + 1]) {
// 交換 nums[j] 與 nums[j + 1]
var tmp = nums[j];
nums[j] = nums[j + 1];
nums[j + 1] = tmp;
count += 3; // 元素交換包含 3 個單元操作
}
}
}
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 549px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20bubble_sort%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E6%B3%A1%E6%B2%AB%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%20%20%23%20%E8%A8%88%E6%95%B8%E5%99%A8%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%A4%96%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%EF%BC%9A%E6%9C%AA%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E5%8D%80%E9%96%93%E7%82%BA%20%5B0%2C%20i%5D%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28len%28nums%29%20-%201%2C%200%2C%20-1%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%85%A7%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%EF%BC%9A%E5%B0%87%E6%9C%AA%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E5%8D%80%E9%96%93%20%5B0%2C%20i%5D%20%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%BA%A4%E6%8F%9B%E8%87%B3%E8%A9%B2%E5%8D%80%E9%96%93%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%80%E5%8F%B3%E7%AB%AF%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20j%20in%20range%28i%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20if%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%3E%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E4%BA%A4%E6%8F%9B%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%E8%88%87%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20tmp%20%3D%20nums%5Bj%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%3D%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%20%3D%20tmp%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%203%20%20%23%20%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%BA%A4%E6%8F%9B%E5%8C%85%E5%90%AB%203%20%E5%80%8B%E5%96%AE%E5%85%83%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20%5Bi%20for%20i%20in%20range%28n%2C%200%2C%20-1%29%5D%20%20%23%20%5Bn%2C%20n-1%2C%20...%2C%202%2C%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20bubble_sort%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E6%B3%A1%E6%B2%AB%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20bubble_sort%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E6%B3%A1%E6%B2%AB%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%20%20%23%20%E8%A8%88%E6%95%B8%E5%99%A8%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%A4%96%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%EF%BC%9A%E6%9C%AA%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E5%8D%80%E9%96%93%E7%82%BA%20%5B0%2C%20i%5D%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28len%28nums%29%20-%201%2C%200%2C%20-1%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%85%A7%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%EF%BC%9A%E5%B0%87%E6%9C%AA%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E5%8D%80%E9%96%93%20%5B0%2C%20i%5D%20%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%80%E5%A4%A7%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%BA%A4%E6%8F%9B%E8%87%B3%E8%A9%B2%E5%8D%80%E9%96%93%E7%9A%84%E6%9C%80%E5%8F%B3%E7%AB%AF%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20j%20in%20range%28i%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20if%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%3E%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E4%BA%A4%E6%8F%9B%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%E8%88%87%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20tmp%20%3D%20nums%5Bj%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20nums%5Bj%5D%20%3D%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20nums%5Bj%20%2B%201%5D%20%3D%20tmp%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%203%20%20%23%20%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E4%BA%A4%E6%8F%9B%E5%8C%85%E5%90%AB%203%20%E5%80%8B%E5%96%AE%E5%85%83%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20%5Bi%20for%20i%20in%20range%28n%2C%200%2C%20-1%29%5D%20%20%23%20%5Bn%2C%20n-1%2C%20...%2C%202%2C%201%5D%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20bubble_sort%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%B9%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E6%B3%A1%E6%B2%AB%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
4. 指數階 O(2^n)
生物學的“細胞分裂”是指數階增長的典型例子:初始狀態為 1
個細胞,分裂一輪後變為 2
個,分裂兩輪後變為 4
個,以此類推,分裂 n
輪後有 2^n
個細胞。
圖 2-11 和以下程式碼模擬了細胞分裂的過程,時間複雜度為 O(2^n)
:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def exponential(n: int) -> int:
"""指數階(迴圈實現)"""
count = 0
base = 1
# 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for _ in range(n):
for _ in range(base):
count += 1
base *= 2
# count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int exponential(int n) {
int count = 0, base = 1;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < base; j++) {
count++;
}
base *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int exponential(int n) {
int count = 0, base = 1;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < base; j++) {
count++;
}
base *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int Exponential(int n) {
int count = 0, bas = 1;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < bas; j++) {
count++;
}
bas *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現)*/
func exponential(n int) int {
count, base := 0, 1
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
for j := 0; j < base; j++ {
count++
}
base *= 2
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
func exponential(n: Int) -> Int {
var count = 0
var base = 1
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for _ in 0 ..< n {
for _ in 0 ..< base {
count += 1
}
base *= 2
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
function exponential(n) {
let count = 0,
base = 1;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (let j = 0; j < base; j++) {
count++;
}
base *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
function exponential(n: number): number {
let count = 0,
base = 1;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (let j = 0; j < base; j++) {
count++;
}
base *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int exponential(int n) {
int count = 0, base = 1;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (var j = 0; j < base; j++) {
count++;
}
base *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
fn exponential(n: i32) -> i32 {
let mut count = 0;
let mut base = 1;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for _ in 0..n {
for _ in 0..base {
count += 1
}
base *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
count
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
int exponential(int n) {
int count = 0;
int bas = 1;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < bas; j++) {
count++;
}
bas *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 指數階(迴圈實現) */
fun exponential(n: Int): Int {
var count = 0
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
var base = 1
for (i in 0..<n) {
for (j in 0..<base) {
count++
}
base *= 2
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 指數階(迴圈實現)###
def exponential(n)
count, base = 0, 1
# 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
(0...n).each do
(0...base).each { count += 1 }
base *= 2
end
# count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 指數階(迴圈實現)
fn exponential(n: i32) i32 {
var count: i32 = 0;
var bas: i32 = 1;
var i: i32 = 0;
// 細胞每輪一分為二,形成數列 1, 2, 4, 8, ..., 2^(n-1)
while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
var j: i32 = 0;
while (j < bas) : (j += 1) {
count += 1;
}
bas *= 2;
}
// count = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + .. + 2^(n-1) = 2^n - 1
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 531px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20exponential%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20base%20%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%AF%8F%E8%BC%AA%E4%B8%80%E5%88%86%E7%82%BA%E4%BA%8C%EF%BC%8C%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E6%95%B8%E5%88%97%201%2C%202%2C%204%2C%208%2C%20...%2C%202%5E%28n-1%29%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28base%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20base%20%2A%3D%202%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20count%20%3D%201%20%2B%202%20%2B%204%20%2B%208%20%2B%20..%20%2B%202%5E%28n-1%29%20%3D%202%5En%20-%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20exponential%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20exponential%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20base%20%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E6%AF%8F%E8%BC%AA%E4%B8%80%E5%88%86%E7%82%BA%E4%BA%8C%EF%BC%8C%E5%BD%A2%E6%88%90%E6%95%B8%E5%88%97%201%2C%202%2C%204%2C%208%2C%20...%2C%202%5E%28n-1%29%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28base%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20base%20%2A%3D%202%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20count%20%3D%201%20%2B%202%20%2B%204%20%2B%208%20%2B%20..%20%2B%202%5E%28n-1%29%20%3D%202%5En%20-%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20exponential%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
圖 2-11 指數階的時間複雜度
在實際演算法中,指數階常出現於遞迴函式中。例如在以下程式碼中,其遞迴地一分為二,經過 n
次分裂後停止:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def exp_recur(n: int) -> int:
"""指數階(遞迴實現)"""
if n == 1:
return 1
return exp_recur(n - 1) + exp_recur(n - 1) + 1
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int expRecur(int n) {
if (n == 1)
return 1;
return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int expRecur(int n) {
if (n == 1)
return 1;
return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int ExpRecur(int n) {
if (n == 1) return 1;
return ExpRecur(n - 1) + ExpRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現)*/
func expRecur(n int) int {
if n == 1 {
return 1
}
return expRecur(n-1) + expRecur(n-1) + 1
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
func expRecur(n: Int) -> Int {
if n == 1 {
return 1
}
return expRecur(n: n - 1) + expRecur(n: n - 1) + 1
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
function expRecur(n) {
if (n === 1) return 1;
return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
function expRecur(n: number): number {
if (n === 1) return 1;
return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int expRecur(int n) {
if (n == 1) return 1;
return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
fn exp_recur(n: i32) -> i32 {
if n == 1 {
return 1;
}
exp_recur(n - 1) + exp_recur(n - 1) + 1
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
int expRecur(int n) {
if (n == 1)
return 1;
return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 指數階(遞迴實現) */
fun expRecur(n: Int): Int {
if (n == 1) {
return 1
}
return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 指數階(遞迴實現)###
def exp_recur(n)
return 1 if n == 1
exp_recur(n - 1) + exp_recur(n - 1) + 1
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 指數階(遞迴實現)
fn expRecur(n: i32) i32 {
if (n == 1) return 1;
return expRecur(n - 1) + expRecur(n - 1) + 1;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 423px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20exp_recur%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3D%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20exp_recur%28n%20-%201%29%20%2B%20exp_recur%28n%20-%201%29%20%2B%201%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%207%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20exp_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20exp_recur%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3D%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20exp_recur%28n%20-%201%29%20%2B%20exp_recur%28n%20-%201%29%20%2B%201%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%207%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20exp_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
指數階增長非常迅速,在窮舉法(暴力搜尋、回溯等)中比較常見。對於資料規模較大的問題,指數階是不可接受的,通常需要使用動態規劃或貪婪演算法等來解決。
5. 對數階 O(\log n)
與指數階相反,對數階反映了“每輪縮減到一半”的情況。設輸入資料大小為 n
,由於每輪縮減到一半,因此迴圈次數是 \log_2 n
,即 2^n
的反函式。
圖 2-12 和以下程式碼模擬了“每輪縮減到一半”的過程,時間複雜度為 O(\log_2 n)
,簡記為 O(\log n)
:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def logarithmic(n: int) -> int:
"""對數階(迴圈實現)"""
count = 0
while n > 1:
n = n / 2
count += 1
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int logarithmic(int n) {
int count = 0;
while (n > 1) {
n = n / 2;
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int logarithmic(int n) {
int count = 0;
while (n > 1) {
n = n / 2;
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int Logarithmic(int n) {
int count = 0;
while (n > 1) {
n /= 2;
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現)*/
func logarithmic(n int) int {
count := 0
for n > 1 {
n = n / 2
count++
}
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
func logarithmic(n: Int) -> Int {
var count = 0
var n = n
while n > 1 {
n = n / 2
count += 1
}
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
function logarithmic(n) {
let count = 0;
while (n > 1) {
n = n / 2;
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
function logarithmic(n: number): number {
let count = 0;
while (n > 1) {
n = n / 2;
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int logarithmic(int n) {
int count = 0;
while (n > 1) {
n = n ~/ 2;
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
fn logarithmic(mut n: i32) -> i32 {
let mut count = 0;
while n > 1 {
n = n / 2;
count += 1;
}
count
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
int logarithmic(int n) {
int count = 0;
while (n > 1) {
n = n / 2;
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 對數階(迴圈實現) */
fun logarithmic(n: Int): Int {
var n1 = n
var count = 0
while (n1 > 1) {
n1 /= 2
count++
}
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 對數階(迴圈實現)###
def logarithmic(n)
count = 0
while n > 1
n /= 2
count += 1
end
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 對數階(迴圈實現)
fn logarithmic(n: i32) i32 {
var count: i32 = 0;
var n_var = n;
while (n_var > 1)
{
n_var = n_var / 2;
count +=1;
}
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 459px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20logarithmic%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20while%20n%20%3E%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%20n%20/%202%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20logarithmic%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20logarithmic%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20while%20n%20%3E%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%20n%20/%202%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20logarithmic%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E8%BF%B4%E5%9C%88%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
圖 2-12 對數階的時間複雜度
與指數階類似,對數階也常出現於遞迴函式中。以下程式碼形成了一棵高度為 \log_2 n
的遞迴樹:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def log_recur(n: int) -> int:
"""對數階(遞迴實現)"""
if n <= 1:
return 0
return log_recur(n / 2) + 1
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int logRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1)
return 0;
return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int logRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1)
return 0;
return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int LogRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1) return 0;
return LogRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現)*/
func logRecur(n int) int {
if n <= 1 {
return 0
}
return logRecur(n/2) + 1
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
func logRecur(n: Int) -> Int {
if n <= 1 {
return 0
}
return logRecur(n: n / 2) + 1
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
function logRecur(n) {
if (n <= 1) return 0;
return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
function logRecur(n: number): number {
if (n <= 1) return 0;
return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int logRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1) return 0;
return logRecur(n ~/ 2) + 1;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
fn log_recur(n: i32) -> i32 {
if n <= 1 {
return 0;
}
log_recur(n / 2) + 1
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
int logRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1)
return 0;
return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 對數階(遞迴實現) */
fun logRecur(n: Int): Int {
if (n <= 1)
return 0
return logRecur(n / 2) + 1
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 對數階(遞迴實現)###
def log_recur(n)
return 0 unless n > 1
log_recur(n / 2) + 1
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 對數階(遞迴實現)
fn logRecur(n: i32) i32 {
if (n <= 1) return 0;
return logRecur(n / 2) + 1;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 423px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20log_recur%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3C%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%200%0A%20%20%20%20return%20log_recur%28n%20/%202%29%20%2B%201%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20log_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=4&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20log_recur%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3C%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%200%0A%20%20%20%20return%20log_recur%28n%20/%202%29%20%2B%201%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20log_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=4&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
對數階常出現於基於分治策略的演算法中,體現了“一分為多”和“化繁為簡”的演算法思想。它增長緩慢,是僅次於常數階的理想的時間複雜度。
!!! tip "O(\log n)
的底數是多少?"
準確來說,“一分為 $m$”對應的時間複雜度是 $O(\log_m n)$ 。而透過對數換底公式,我們可以得到具有不同底數、相等的時間複雜度:
$$
O(\log_m n) = O(\log_k n / \log_k m) = O(\log_k n)
$$
也就是說,底數 $m$ 可以在不影響複雜度的前提下轉換。因此我們通常會省略底數 $m$ ,將對數階直接記為 $O(\log n)$ 。
6. 線性對數階 O(n \log n)
線性對數階常出現於巢狀迴圈中,兩層迴圈的時間複雜度分別為 O(\log n)
和 O(n)
。相關程式碼如下:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def linear_log_recur(n: int) -> int:
"""線性對數階"""
if n <= 1:
return 1
count: int = linear_log_recur(n // 2) + linear_log_recur(n // 2)
for _ in range(n):
count += 1
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 線性對數階 */
int linearLogRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1)
return 1;
int count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 線性對數階 */
int linearLogRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1)
return 1;
int count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 線性對數階 */
int LinearLogRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1) return 1;
int count = LinearLogRecur(n / 2) + LinearLogRecur(n / 2);
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 線性對數階 */
func linearLogRecur(n int) int {
if n <= 1 {
return 1
}
count := linearLogRecur(n/2) + linearLogRecur(n/2)
for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
count++
}
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 線性對數階 */
func linearLogRecur(n: Int) -> Int {
if n <= 1 {
return 1
}
var count = linearLogRecur(n: n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n: n / 2)
for _ in stride(from: 0, to: n, by: 1) {
count += 1
}
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 線性對數階 */
function linearLogRecur(n) {
if (n <= 1) return 1;
let count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 線性對數階 */
function linearLogRecur(n: number): number {
if (n <= 1) return 1;
let count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 線性對數階 */
int linearLogRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1) return 1;
int count = linearLogRecur(n ~/ 2) + linearLogRecur(n ~/ 2);
for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 線性對數階 */
fn linear_log_recur(n: i32) -> i32 {
if n <= 1 {
return 1;
}
let mut count = linear_log_recur(n / 2) + linear_log_recur(n / 2);
for _ in 0..n as i32 {
count += 1;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 線性對數階 */
int linearLogRecur(int n) {
if (n <= 1)
return 1;
int count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++;
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 線性對數階 */
fun linearLogRecur(n: Int): Int {
if (n <= 1)
return 1
var count = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2)
for (i in 0..<n) {
count++
}
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 線性對數階 ###
def linear_log_recur(n)
return 1 unless n > 1
count = linear_log_recur(n / 2) + linear_log_recur(n / 2)
(0...n).each { count += 1 }
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 線性對數階
fn linearLogRecur(n: i32) i32 {
if (n <= 1) return 1;
var count: i32 = linearLogRecur(n / 2) + linearLogRecur(n / 2);
var i: i32 = 0;
while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
count += 1;
}
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 477px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20linear_log_recur%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3C%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear_log_recur%28n%20//%202%29%20%2B%20linear_log_recur%28n%20//%202%29%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear_log_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=4&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20linear_log_recur%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3C%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear_log_recur%28n%20//%202%29%20%2B%20linear_log_recur%28n%20//%202%29%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%201%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%208%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20linear_log_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E7%B7%9A%E6%80%A7%E5%B0%8D%E6%95%B8%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=4&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
圖 2-13 展示了線性對數階的生成方式。二元樹的每一層的操作總數都為 n
,樹共有 \log_2 n + 1
層,因此時間複雜度為 O(n \log n)
。
圖 2-13 線性對數階的時間複雜度
主流排序演算法的時間複雜度通常為 O(n \log n)
,例如快速排序、合併排序、堆積排序等。
7. 階乘階 O(n!)
階乘階對應數學上的“全排列”問題。給定 n
個互不重複的元素,求其所有可能的排列方案,方案數量為:
$$
n! = n \times (n - 1) \times (n - 2) \times \dots \times 2 \times 1
階乘通常使用遞迴實現。如圖 2-14 和以下程式碼所示,第一層分裂出 n
個,第二層分裂出 n - 1
個,以此類推,直至第 n
層時停止分裂:
=== "Python"
```python title="time_complexity.py"
def factorial_recur(n: int) -> int:
"""階乘階(遞迴實現)"""
if n == 0:
return 1
count = 0
# 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for _ in range(n):
count += factorial_recur(n - 1)
return count
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="time_complexity.cpp"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int factorialRecur(int n) {
if (n == 0)
return 1;
int count = 0;
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="time_complexity.java"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int factorialRecur(int n) {
if (n == 0)
return 1;
int count = 0;
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
}
return count;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="time_complexity.cs"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int FactorialRecur(int n) {
if (n == 0) return 1;
int count = 0;
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count += FactorialRecur(n - 1);
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="time_complexity.go"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
func factorialRecur(n int) int {
if n == 0 {
return 1
}
count := 0
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1)
}
return count
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="time_complexity.swift"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
func factorialRecur(n: Int) -> Int {
if n == 0 {
return 1
}
var count = 0
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for _ in 0 ..< n {
count += factorialRecur(n: n - 1)
}
return count
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="time_complexity.js"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
function factorialRecur(n) {
if (n === 0) return 1;
let count = 0;
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
}
return count;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="time_complexity.ts"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
function factorialRecur(n: number): number {
if (n === 0) return 1;
let count = 0;
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="time_complexity.dart"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int factorialRecur(int n) {
if (n == 0) return 1;
int count = 0;
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="time_complexity.rs"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
fn factorial_recur(n: i32) -> i32 {
if n == 0 {
return 1;
}
let mut count = 0;
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for _ in 0..n {
count += factorial_recur(n - 1);
}
count
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="time_complexity.c"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
int factorialRecur(int n) {
if (n == 0)
return 1;
int count = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
}
return count;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="time_complexity.kt"
/* 階乘階(遞迴實現) */
fun factorialRecur(n: Int): Int {
if (n == 0)
return 1
var count = 0
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
for (i in 0..<n) {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1)
}
return count
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="time_complexity.rb"
### 階乘階(遞迴實現)###
def factorial_recur(n)
return 1 if n == 0
count = 0
# 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
(0...n).each { count += factorial_recur(n - 1) }
count
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="time_complexity.zig"
// 階乘階(遞迴實現)
fn factorialRecur(n: i32) i32 {
if (n == 0) return 1;
var count: i32 = 0;
var i: i32 = 0;
// 從 1 個分裂出 n 個
while (i < n) : (i += 1) {
count += factorialRecur(n - 1);
}
return count;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 495px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20factorial_recur%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E9%9A%8E%E4%B9%98%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3D%3D%200%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BE%9E%201%20%E5%80%8B%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82%E5%87%BA%20n%20%E5%80%8B%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%20factorial_recur%28n%20-%201%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%204%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20factorial_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E9%9A%8E%E4%B9%98%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=def%20factorial_recur%28n%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E9%9A%8E%E4%B9%98%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20if%20n%20%3D%3D%200%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%201%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%200%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E5%BE%9E%201%20%E5%80%8B%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82%E5%87%BA%20n%20%E5%80%8B%0A%20%20%20%20for%20_%20in%20range%28n%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20count%20%2B%3D%20factorial_recur%28n%20-%201%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20count%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%204%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E8%BC%B8%E5%85%A5%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%A4%A7%E5%B0%8F%20n%20%3D%22%2C%20n%29%0A%0A%20%20%20%20count%20%3D%20factorial_recur%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E9%9A%8E%E4%B9%98%E9%9A%8E%EF%BC%88%E9%81%9E%E8%BF%B4%E5%AF%A6%E7%8F%BE%EF%BC%89%E7%9A%84%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E6%95%B8%E9%87%8F%20%3D%22%2C%20count%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=3&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
圖 2-14 階乘階的時間複雜度
請注意,因為當 n \geq 4
時恆有 n! > 2^n
,所以階乘階比指數階增長得更快,在 n
較大時也是不可接受的。
2.3.5 最差、最佳、平均時間複雜度
演算法的時間效率往往不是固定的,而是與輸入資料的分佈有關。假設輸入一個長度為 n
的陣列 nums
,其中 nums
由從 1
至 n
的數字組成,每個數字只出現一次;但元素順序是隨機打亂的,任務目標是返回元素 1
的索引。我們可以得出以下結論。
- 當
nums = [?, ?, ..., 1]
,即當末尾元素是1
時,需要完整走訪陣列,達到最差時間複雜度 $O(n)$ 。 - 當
nums = [1, ?, ?, ...]
,即當首個元素為1
時,無論陣列多長都不需要繼續走訪,達到最佳時間複雜度 $\Omega(1)$ 。
“最差時間複雜度”對應函式漸近上界,使用大 O
記號表示。相應地,“最佳時間複雜度”對應函式漸近下界,用 \Omega
記號表示:
=== "Python"
```python title="worst_best_time_complexity.py"
def random_numbers(n: int) -> list[int]:
"""生成一個陣列,元素為: 1, 2, ..., n ,順序被打亂"""
# 生成陣列 nums =: 1, 2, 3, ..., n
nums = [i for i in range(1, n + 1)]
# 隨機打亂陣列元素
random.shuffle(nums)
return nums
def find_one(nums: list[int]) -> int:
"""查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引"""
for i in range(len(nums)):
# 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
# 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if nums[i] == 1:
return i
return -1
```
=== "C++"
```cpp title="worst_best_time_complexity.cpp"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
vector<int> randomNumbers(int n) {
vector<int> nums(n);
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
nums[i] = i + 1;
}
// 使用系統時間生成隨機種子
unsigned seed = chrono::system_clock::now().time_since_epoch().count();
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
shuffle(nums.begin(), nums.end(), default_random_engine(seed));
return nums;
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int findOne(vector<int> &nums) {
for (int i = 0; i < nums.size(); i++) {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (nums[i] == 1)
return i;
}
return -1;
}
```
=== "Java"
```java title="worst_best_time_complexity.java"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
int[] randomNumbers(int n) {
Integer[] nums = new Integer[n];
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
nums[i] = i + 1;
}
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
Collections.shuffle(Arrays.asList(nums));
// Integer[] -> int[]
int[] res = new int[n];
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
res[i] = nums[i];
}
return res;
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int findOne(int[] nums) {
for (int i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (nums[i] == 1)
return i;
}
return -1;
}
```
=== "C#"
```csharp title="worst_best_time_complexity.cs"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
int[] RandomNumbers(int n) {
int[] nums = new int[n];
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
nums[i] = i + 1;
}
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
for (int i = 0; i < nums.Length; i++) {
int index = new Random().Next(i, nums.Length);
(nums[i], nums[index]) = (nums[index], nums[i]);
}
return nums;
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int FindOne(int[] nums) {
for (int i = 0; i < nums.Length; i++) {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (nums[i] == 1)
return i;
}
return -1;
}
```
=== "Go"
```go title="worst_best_time_complexity.go"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
func randomNumbers(n int) []int {
nums := make([]int, n)
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for i := 0; i < n; i++ {
nums[i] = i + 1
}
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
rand.Shuffle(len(nums), func(i, j int) {
nums[i], nums[j] = nums[j], nums[i]
})
return nums
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
func findOne(nums []int) int {
for i := 0; i < len(nums); i++ {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if nums[i] == 1 {
return i
}
}
return -1
}
```
=== "Swift"
```swift title="worst_best_time_complexity.swift"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
func randomNumbers(n: Int) -> [Int] {
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
var nums = Array(1 ... n)
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
nums.shuffle()
return nums
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
func findOne(nums: [Int]) -> Int {
for i in nums.indices {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if nums[i] == 1 {
return i
}
}
return -1
}
```
=== "JS"
```javascript title="worst_best_time_complexity.js"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
function randomNumbers(n) {
const nums = Array(n);
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
nums[i] = i + 1;
}
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
const r = Math.floor(Math.random() * (i + 1));
const temp = nums[i];
nums[i] = nums[r];
nums[r] = temp;
}
return nums;
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
function findOne(nums) {
for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (nums[i] === 1) {
return i;
}
}
return -1;
}
```
=== "TS"
```typescript title="worst_best_time_complexity.ts"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
function randomNumbers(n: number): number[] {
const nums = Array(n);
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
nums[i] = i + 1;
}
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
const r = Math.floor(Math.random() * (i + 1));
const temp = nums[i];
nums[i] = nums[r];
nums[r] = temp;
}
return nums;
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
function findOne(nums: number[]): number {
for (let i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (nums[i] === 1) {
return i;
}
}
return -1;
}
```
=== "Dart"
```dart title="worst_best_time_complexity.dart"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
List<int> randomNumbers(int n) {
final nums = List.filled(n, 0);
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) {
nums[i] = i + 1;
}
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
nums.shuffle();
return nums;
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int findOne(List<int> nums) {
for (var i = 0; i < nums.length; i++) {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (nums[i] == 1) return i;
}
return -1;
}
```
=== "Rust"
```rust title="worst_best_time_complexity.rs"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
fn random_numbers(n: i32) -> Vec<i32> {
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
let mut nums = (1..=n).collect::<Vec<i32>>();
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
nums.shuffle(&mut thread_rng());
nums
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
fn find_one(nums: &[i32]) -> Option<usize> {
for i in 0..nums.len() {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if nums[i] == 1 {
return Some(i);
}
}
None
}
```
=== "C"
```c title="worst_best_time_complexity.c"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
int *randomNumbers(int n) {
// 分配堆積區記憶體(建立一維可變長陣列:陣列中元素數量為 n ,元素型別為 int )
int *nums = (int *)malloc(n * sizeof(int));
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
nums[i] = i + 1;
}
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
for (int i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
int j = rand() % (i + 1);
int temp = nums[i];
nums[i] = nums[j];
nums[j] = temp;
}
return nums;
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
int findOne(int *nums, int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (nums[i] == 1)
return i;
}
return -1;
}
```
=== "Kotlin"
```kotlin title="worst_best_time_complexity.kt"
/* 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂 */
fun randomNumbers(n: Int): Array<Int?> {
val nums = IntArray(n)
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (i in 0..<n) {
nums[i] = i + 1
}
val mutableList = nums.toMutableList()
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
mutableList.shuffle()
val res = arrayOfNulls<Int>(n)
for (i in 0..<n) {
res[i] = mutableList[i]
}
return res
}
/* 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 */
fun findOne(nums: Array<Int?>): Int {
for (i in nums.indices) {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (nums[i] == 1)
return i
}
return -1
}
```
=== "Ruby"
```ruby title="worst_best_time_complexity.rb"
### 生成一個陣列,元素為: 1, 2, ..., n ,順序被打亂 ###
def random_numbers(n)
# 生成陣列 nums =: 1, 2, 3, ..., n
nums = Array.new(n) { |i| i + 1 }
# 隨機打亂陣列元素
nums.shuffle!
end
### 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引 ###
def find_one(nums)
for i in 0...nums.length
# 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
# 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
return i if nums[i] == 1
end
-1
end
```
=== "Zig"
```zig title="worst_best_time_complexity.zig"
// 生成一個陣列,元素為 { 1, 2, ..., n },順序被打亂
fn randomNumbers(comptime n: usize) [n]i32 {
var nums: [n]i32 = undefined;
// 生成陣列 nums = { 1, 2, 3, ..., n }
for (&nums, 0..) |*num, i| {
num.* = @as(i32, @intCast(i)) + 1;
}
// 隨機打亂陣列元素
const rand = std.crypto.random;
rand.shuffle(i32, &nums);
return nums;
}
// 查詢陣列 nums 中數字 1 所在索引
fn findOne(nums: []i32) i32 {
for (nums, 0..) |num, i| {
// 當元素 1 在陣列頭部時,達到最佳時間複雜度 O(1)
// 當元素 1 在陣列尾部時,達到最差時間複雜度 O(n)
if (num == 1) return @intCast(i);
}
return -1;
}
```
??? pythontutor "視覺化執行"
<div style="height: 549px; width: 100%;"><iframe class="pythontutor-iframe" src="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=import%20random%0A%0Adef%20random_numbers%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20list%5Bint%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E4%B8%80%E5%80%8B%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E7%82%BA%3A%201%2C%202%2C%20...%2C%20n%20%EF%BC%8C%E9%A0%86%E5%BA%8F%E8%A2%AB%E6%89%93%E4%BA%82%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%20nums%20%3D%3A%201%2C%202%2C%203%2C%20...%2C%20n%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20%5Bi%20for%20i%20in%20range%281%2C%20n%20%2B%201%29%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E9%9A%A8%E6%A9%9F%E6%89%93%E4%BA%82%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%0A%20%20%20%20random.shuffle%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20nums%0A%0Adef%20find_one%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%9F%A5%E8%A9%A2%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%20nums%20%E4%B8%AD%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%97%201%20%E6%89%80%E5%9C%A8%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28len%28nums%29%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%95%B6%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%201%20%E5%9C%A8%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%E9%A0%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%99%82%EF%BC%8C%E9%81%94%E5%88%B0%E6%9C%80%E4%BD%B3%E6%99%82%E9%96%93%E8%A4%87%E9%9B%9C%E5%BA%A6%20O%281%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%95%B6%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%201%20%E5%9C%A8%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%E5%B0%BE%E9%83%A8%E6%99%82%EF%BC%8C%E9%81%94%E5%88%B0%E6%9C%80%E5%B7%AE%E6%99%82%E9%96%93%E8%A4%87%E9%9B%9C%E5%BA%A6%20O%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20if%20nums%5Bi%5D%20%3D%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%20i%0A%20%20%20%20return%20-1%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%2010%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20random_numbers%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20index%20%3D%20find_one%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%5Cn%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%20%5B%201%2C%202%2C%20...%2C%20n%20%5D%20%E8%A2%AB%E6%89%93%E4%BA%82%E5%BE%8C%20%3D%22%2C%20nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%97%201%20%E7%9A%84%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%E7%82%BA%22%2C%20index%29&codeDivHeight=472&codeDivWidth=350&cumulative=false&curInstr=25&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false"> </iframe></div>
<div style="margin-top: 5px;"><a href="https://pythontutor.com/iframe-embed.html#code=import%20random%0A%0Adef%20random_numbers%28n%3A%20int%29%20-%3E%20list%5Bint%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E4%B8%80%E5%80%8B%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%EF%BC%8C%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E7%82%BA%3A%201%2C%202%2C%20...%2C%20n%20%EF%BC%8C%E9%A0%86%E5%BA%8F%E8%A2%AB%E6%89%93%E4%BA%82%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%20nums%20%3D%3A%201%2C%202%2C%203%2C%20...%2C%20n%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20%5Bi%20for%20i%20in%20range%281%2C%20n%20%2B%201%29%5D%0A%20%20%20%20%23%20%E9%9A%A8%E6%A9%9F%E6%89%93%E4%BA%82%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%0A%20%20%20%20random.shuffle%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20nums%0A%0Adef%20find_one%28nums%3A%20list%5Bint%5D%29%20-%3E%20int%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%22%22%22%E6%9F%A5%E8%A9%A2%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%20nums%20%E4%B8%AD%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%97%201%20%E6%89%80%E5%9C%A8%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%22%22%22%0A%20%20%20%20for%20i%20in%20range%28len%28nums%29%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%95%B6%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%201%20%E5%9C%A8%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%E9%A0%AD%E9%83%A8%E6%99%82%EF%BC%8C%E9%81%94%E5%88%B0%E6%9C%80%E4%BD%B3%E6%99%82%E9%96%93%E8%A4%87%E9%9B%9C%E5%BA%A6%20O%281%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%23%20%E7%95%B6%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%201%20%E5%9C%A8%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%E5%B0%BE%E9%83%A8%E6%99%82%EF%BC%8C%E9%81%94%E5%88%B0%E6%9C%80%E5%B7%AE%E6%99%82%E9%96%93%E8%A4%87%E9%9B%9C%E5%BA%A6%20O%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20if%20nums%5Bi%5D%20%3D%3D%201%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20return%20i%0A%20%20%20%20return%20-1%0A%0A%22%22%22Driver%20Code%22%22%22%0Aif%20__name__%20%3D%3D%20%22__main__%22%3A%0A%20%20%20%20n%20%3D%2010%0A%20%20%20%20nums%20%3D%20random_numbers%28n%29%0A%20%20%20%20index%20%3D%20find_one%28nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%5Cn%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97%20%5B%201%2C%202%2C%20...%2C%20n%20%5D%20%E8%A2%AB%E6%89%93%E4%BA%82%E5%BE%8C%20%3D%22%2C%20nums%29%0A%20%20%20%20print%28%22%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%97%201%20%E7%9A%84%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%E7%82%BA%22%2C%20index%29&codeDivHeight=800&codeDivWidth=600&cumulative=false&curInstr=25&heapPrimitives=nevernest&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=311&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">全螢幕觀看 ></a></div>
值得說明的是,我們在實際中很少使用最佳時間複雜度,因為通常只有在很小機率下才能達到,可能會帶來一定的誤導性。而最差時間複雜度更為實用,因為它給出了一個效率安全值,讓我們可以放心地使用演算法。
從上述示例可以看出,最差時間複雜度和最佳時間複雜度只出現於“特殊的資料分佈”,這些情況的出現機率可能很小,並不能真實地反映演算法執行效率。相比之下,平均時間複雜度可以體現演算法在隨機輸入資料下的執行效率,用 \Theta
記號來表示。
對於部分演算法,我們可以簡單地推算出隨機資料分佈下的平均情況。比如上述示例,由於輸入陣列是被打亂的,因此元素 1
出現在任意索引的機率都是相等的,那麼演算法的平均迴圈次數就是陣列長度的一半 n / 2
,平均時間複雜度為 \Theta(n / 2) = \Theta(n)
。
但對於較為複雜的演算法,計算平均時間複雜度往往比較困難,因為很難分析出在資料分佈下的整體數學期望。在這種情況下,我們通常使用最差時間複雜度作為演算法效率的評判標準。
!!! question "為什麼很少看到 \Theta
符號?"
可能由於 $O$ 符號過於朗朗上口,因此我們常常使用它來表示平均時間複雜度。但從嚴格意義上講,這種做法並不規範。在本書和其他資料中,若遇到類似“平均時間複雜度 $O(n)$”的表述,請將其直接理解為 $\Theta(n)$ 。