Fluência na linha de comando é uma skill muitas vezes negligenciada ou considerada obsoleta, porém ela aumenta sua flexibilidade e produtividade como um *desenvolvedor*. Este texto descreve uma selação de notas e dicas de uso da linha de comando que eu tenho encontrado muita utilizada usando o Linux. Algumas dicas são elementares, e algumas são mais específicas, sofisticadas ou obscuras. Esta página não é tão longa, mas se você puder usar e relembrar todos os items que estão aqui, então você sabe bastante coisas.
em [Quora](http://www.quora.com/What-are-some-time-saving-tips-that-every-Linux-user-should-know),
mas dado o interesse lá, então parece que é importante usar o Github, onde pessoas mais talentosas do que eu, prontamente podem sugerir melhorias. Se você ver um erro ou algo que poderia ser melhorado, por favor abra uma issue ou um PR! (É claro por favor revise as meta sections e PRs/issues existentes primeiro.)
## Meta
Escopo:
- Este guia é destinado tanto para iniciantes como para usuários mais experientes. Os objetivos são *breadth* (tudo de importante), *aprofundamento* (dar exemplos concretos dos casos de uso mais comuns), e *brevidade* (evitar coisas que não são tão essenciais or digressões que vou pode facilmente encontrar por aí). Todas as dicas são essenciais em alguma situação ou trazem uma economia notável de tempo em relação a outras alternativas.
- Este guia é escrito para o Linux. Muitos, mas não todos os items se aplicam igualmente para o MacOS (ou mesmo o Cygwin).
- O foco está na interatividade no Bash, embora muitas dicas aqui são aplicadas para outros shells e em geral para Bash script.
- Este inclui tanto comandos Unix "padrão", como comandos que requerem instalação de pacotes adicionais -- tanto quanto estes sejam importantes o suficiente para merecerem sua inclusão.
Notas:
- Para manter este guia em uma página, o conteúdo implícito será incluído por referência. Você é experto o suficiente para verificar mais detalhes em outros lugares, uma vez que você já tenha entendido a ideia ou siga para o Google. Use `apt-get`/`yum`/`dnf`/`pacman`/`pip`/`brew` (como adequado) para instalar novos programas.
- Use [Explainshell](http://explainshell.com/) para encontrar informações úteis sobre comandos, opções, pipes e etc. faz.
## Básico
- Aprenda o básico sobre Bash. Atualmente, digite `man bash` e pelo menos entenda superficialmente o seu funcionamento; é bastante de ler e nem é tão grande assim. Shells alternativos podem serem legais, mas o Bash é mais poderoso e sempre estar disponível (aprendendo *somente* zsh, fish, etc, é enquanto tentador no seu próprio notebook, restringe você em muitas situações, como ao usar servidores existentes).
- Aprenda pelo menos um editor text-base bem. Idealmente o Vim (`vi`), como não existe nenhuma competição aleatória de edição em um terminal ( mesmo se você usa o Emacs, uma grande IDE, ou um moderno editor hipster a maioria do tempo).
- Saiba como ler a documentação com o `man` (por curiosidade, `man man` lista os números das seções, exemplo. 1 se refere aos comandos "regular", 5 é sobre arquivos/convenções, e 8 se diz respeito a administração). Procure outras documentos do man com o `apropos`. Saiba que alguns dos comandos não são executáveis, mas sim builins(embutidos) no bash, os quais você poderá conseguir ajuda com `help` e `help -d`.
- Aprenda a respeito do redirecionamento da saída e entrada usando `>` e `<` e pipes usando `|`. Aprenda sobre o stdout e stdin.
- Aprenda sobre a expensão de arquivos glob com `*` ( e talvez `?` e `{`...`}`) and quoting and the difference entre aspas duplas `"` e aspas simples `'`. (Veja mais em expansões de variáveis abaixo.)
- Esteja familiar com o gerenciamento de jobs no Bash: `&`, **ctrl-z**, **ctrl-c**, `jobs`, `fg`, `bg`, `kill`, etc.
- Aprenda `ssh`, e o básico de autenticação sem senha, através do `ssh-agent`, `ssh-add`, etc.
- Gerenciamento básico de arquivos: `ls` e `ls -l` (em particular, aprenda o que cada coluna significa no `ls -l` significa), `less`, `head`, `tail` and `tail -f` (ou ainda melhor, `less +F`), `ln` e `ln -s`(aprenda as diferenças e vantagens de soft links versus hard links), `chown`, `chmod`, `du` (para um rápido resumo do uso do disco: `du -sk *`). Para gerenciamento do sistema de arquivos, `df`, `mount`, `fdisk`, `mkfs`, `lsblk`.
- Aprenda a usar `apt-get`, `yum`, `dnf` ou `pacman` (dependendo da distribuição) para procurar e instalar pacotes. E garanta que você possui o `pip` para instalar ferramentas baseadas em Python (algumas abaixo são fáceis de instalar através do `pip`).
- No Bash, utilize **ctrl-w** para deletar a última palavra, e **ctrl-u** para deletar tudo e voltar para o início da linha. Use **alt-b** e **alt-f** para se mover por palavras, **ctrl-k** para apagar até o final da linha, **ctrl-l** para limpar a tela. Consulte `man readline` para todos os keybindings padrões do Bash. Existem muitos. Por exemplo **alt-.** circula através dos argumentos anteriores, e **alt-*** expande um glob. ***
- Para ver os comandos recentes, `history`. Existem também muitas abreviações como `!$` (último argumento) e `!!` último comando, embora estes sejam muitas vezes facilmente substituídos por **ctrl-r** e **alt-.**.
- Se você estar na metade do caminho ao digitar um comando, mas mudou de ideia, tecle **alt-#** para adicionar um `#` ao início e defina este como um comentário (ou use **ctrl-a**. **#**. **enter**). Você pode então recuperar o comando mais tarde através do histórico de comandos.
- Use `xargs` (ou `parallel`). Estes são muito poderosos. Note que você pode controlar como os vários items são executados por linha (`-L`) assim como o paralelismo (`-P`). Se você não tem certeza de isto é a coisa certa a se fazer, use `xargs echo` primeiro. O `-I{}` também é muito útil. Exemplos:
- Saiba os vários sinais que você pode enviar para um processo. Por exemplo, para suspender um processo, use `kill -STOP [pid]`. Para saber a lista completas dos sinais, veja `man 7 signal`.
- Em scripts Bash, use `set -x` para debugar a saída. Utilize modos estritos sempre que for possível. Use `set -e` para abortar em caso de erros. Use `set -o pipefail` como também, para ser restrito a respeito dos erros (embora este tópico seja um pouco sútil). Para scripts mais desenvolvidos, use também `trap`.
- Em Bash scripts, subshells (escrito com parênteses) são formas convenientes de agrupar comandos. Um exemplo comum é temporariamente mover para um diretório de trabalho diferente, e.g.
- In Bash, note there are lots of kinds of variable expansion. Checking a variable exists: `${name:?error message}`. For example, if a Bash script requires a single argument, just write `input_file=${1:?usage: $0 input_file}`. Arithmetic expansion: `i=$(( (i + 1) % 5 ))`. Sequences: `{1..10}`. Trimming of strings: `${var%suffix}` and `${var#prefix}`. For example if `var=foo.pdf`, then `echo ${var%.pdf}.txt` prints `foo.txt`.
- The output of a command can be treated like a file via `<(some command)`. For example, compare local `/etc/hosts` with a remote one:
```sh
diff /etc/hosts <(ssh somehost cat /etc/hosts)
```
- Know about "here documents" in Bash, as in `cat <<EOF ...`.
- In Bash, redirect both standard output and standard error via: `some-command >logfile 2>&1`. Often, to ensure a command does not leave an open file handle to standard input, tying it to the terminal you are in, it is also good practice to add `</dev/null`.
- Use `man ascii` for a good ASCII table, with hex and decimal values. For general encoding info, `man unicode`, `man utf-8`, and `man latin1` are helpful.
- Use `screen` or [`tmux`](https://tmux.github.io/) to multiplex the screen, especially useful on remote ssh sessions and to detach and re-attach to a session. A more minimal alternative for session persistence only is `dtach`.
- In ssh, knowing how to port tunnel with `-L` or `-D` (and occasionally `-R`) is useful, e.g. to access web sites from a remote server.
- It can be useful to make a few optimizations to your ssh configuration; for example, this `~/.ssh/config` contains settings to avoid dropped connections in certain network environments, use compression (which is helpful with scp over low-bandwidth connections), and multiplex channels to the same server with a local control file:
```
TCPKeepAlive=yes
ServerAliveInterval=15
ServerAliveCountMax=6
Compression=yes
ControlMaster auto
ControlPath /tmp/%r@%h:%p
ControlPersist yes
```
- A few other options relevant to ssh are security sensitive and should be enabled with care, e.g. per subnet or host or in trusted networks: `StrictHostKeyChecking=no`, `ForwardAgent=yes`
- To get the permissions on a file in octal form, which is useful for system configuration but not available in `ls` and easy to bungle, use something like
```sh
stat -c '%A %a %n' /etc/timezone
```
- For interactive selection of values from the output of another command, use [`percol`](https://github.com/mooz/percol).
- For interaction with files based on the output of another command (like `git`), use `fpp` ([PathPicker](https://github.com/facebook/PathPicker)).
- For a simple web server for all files in the current directory (and subdirs), available to anyone on your network, use:
`python -m SimpleHTTPServer 7777` (for port 7777 and Python 2) and `python -m http.server 7777` (for port 7777 and Python 3).
## Processing files and data
- To locate a file by name in the current directory, `find . -iname '*something*'` (or similar). To find a file anywhere by name, use `locate something` (but bear in mind `updatedb` may not have indexed recently created files).
- For general searching through source or data files (more advanced than `grep -r`), use [`ag`](https://github.com/ggreer/the_silver_searcher).
- To convert HTML to text: `lynx -dump -stdin`
- For Markdown, HTML, and all kinds of document conversion, try [`pandoc`](http://pandoc.org/).
- If you must handle XML, `xmlstarlet` is old but good.
- For JSON, use `jq`.
- For Excel or CSV files, [csvkit](https://github.com/onyxfish/csvkit) provides `in2csv`, `csvcut`, `csvjoin`, `csvgrep`, etc.
- For Amazon S3, [`s3cmd`](https://github.com/s3tools/s3cmd) is convenient and [`s4cmd`](https://github.com/bloomreach/s4cmd) is faster. Amazon's [`aws`](https://github.com/aws/aws-cli) is essential for other AWS-related tasks.
- Know about `sort` and `uniq`, including uniq's `-u` and `-d` options -- see one-liners below. See also `comm`.
- Know about `cut`, `paste`, and `join` to manipulate text files. Many people use `cut` but forget about `join`.
- Know about `wc` to count newlines (`-l`), characters (`-m`), words (`-w`) and bytes (`-c`).
- Know about `tee` to copy from stdin to a file and also to stdout, as in `ls -al | tee file.txt`.
- Know that locale affects a lot of command line tools in subtle ways, including sorting order (collation) and performance. Most Linux installations will set `LANG` or other locale variables to a local setting like US English. But be aware sorting will change if you change locale. And know i18n routines can make sort or other commands run *many times* slower. In some situations (such as the set operations or uniqueness operations below) you can safely ignore slow i18n routines entirely and use traditional byte-based sort order, using `export LC_ALL=C`.
- Know basic `awk` and `sed` for simple data munging. For example, summing all numbers in the third column of a text file: `awk '{ x += $3 } END { print x }'`. This is probably 3X faster and 3X shorter than equivalent Python.
- To replace all occurrences of a string in place, in one or more files:
- To rename many files at once according to a pattern, use `rename`. For complex renames, [`repren`](https://github.com/jlevy/repren) may help.
```sh
# Recover backup files foo.bak -> foo:
rename 's/\.bak$//' *.bak
# Full rename of filenames, directories, and contents foo -> bar:
repren --full --preserve-case --from foo --to bar .
```
- Use `shuf` to shuffle or select random lines from a file.
- Know `sort`'s options. Know how keys work (`-t` and `-k`). In particular, watch out that you need to write `-k1,1` to sort by only the first field; `-k1` means sort according to the whole line.
- Stable sort (`sort -s`) can be useful. For example, to sort first by field 2, then secondarily by field 1, you can use `sort -k1,1 | sort -s -k2,2`
- If you ever need to write a tab literal in a command line in Bash (e.g. for the -t argument to sort), press **ctrl-v****[Tab]** or write `$'\t'` (the latter is better as you can copy/paste it).
- The standard tools for patching source code are `diff` and `patch`. See also `diffstat` for summary statistics of a diff. Note `diff -r` works for entire directories. Use `diff -r tree1 tree2 | diffstat` for a summary of changes.
- For binary files, use `hd` for simple hex dumps and `bvi` for binary editing.
- Also for binary files, `strings` (plus `grep`, etc.) lets you find bits of text.
- For binary diffs (delta compression), use `xdelta3`.
- To convert text encodings, try `iconv`. Or `uconv` for more advanced use; it supports some advanced Unicode things. For example, this command lowercases and removes all accents (by expanding and dropping them):
- To split files into pieces, see `split` (to split by size) and `csplit` (to split by a pattern).
- Use `zless`, `zmore`, `zcat`, and `zgrep` to operate on compressed files.
## System debugging
- For web debugging, `curl` and `curl -I` are handy, or their `wget` equivalents, or the more modern [`httpie`](https://github.com/jakubroztocil/httpie).
- To know disk/cpu/network status, use `iostat`, `netstat`, `top` (or the better `htop`), and (especially) `dstat`. Good for getting a quick idea of what's happening on a system.
- For a more in-depth system overview, use [`glances`](https://github.com/nicolargo/glances). It presents you with several system level statistics in one terminal window. Very helpful for quickly checking on various subsystems.
- To know memory status, run and understand the output of `free` and `vmstat`. In particular, be aware the "cached" value is memory held by the Linux kernel as file cache, so effectively counts toward the "free" value.
- Java system debugging is a different kettle of fish, but a simple trick on Oracle's and some other JVMs is that you can run `kill -3 <pid>` and a full stack trace and heap summary (including generational garbage collection details, which can be highly informative) will be dumped to stderr/logs.
- Use `mtr` as a better traceroute, to identify network issues.
- For looking at why a disk is full, `ncdu` saves time over the usual commands like `du -sh *`.
- To find which socket or process is using bandwidth, try `iftop` or `nethogs`.
- The `ab` tool (comes with Apache) is helpful for quick-and-dirty checking of web server performance. For more complex load testing, try `siege`.
- For more serious network debugging, `wireshark`, `tshark`, or `ngrep`.
- Know about `strace` and `ltrace`. These can be helpful if a program is failing, hanging, or crashing, and you don't know why, or if you want to get a general idea of performance. Note the profiling option (`-c`), and the ability to attach to a running process (`-p`).
- Know about `ldd` to check shared libraries etc.
- Know how to connect to a running process with `gdb` and get its stack traces.
- Use `/proc`. It's amazingly helpful sometimes when debugging live problems. Examples: `/proc/cpuinfo`, `/proc/xxx/cwd`, `/proc/xxx/exe`, `/proc/xxx/fd/`, `/proc/xxx/smaps`.
- When debugging why something went wrong in the past, `sar` can be very helpful. It shows historic statistics on CPU, memory, network, etc.
- For deeper systems and performance analyses, look at `stap` ([SystemTap](https://sourceware.org/systemtap/wiki)), [`perf`](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perf_(Linux)), and [`sysdig`](https://github.com/draios/sysdig).
- Confirm what Linux distribution you're using (works on most distros): `lsb_release -a`
- Use `dmesg` whenever something's acting really funny (it could be hardware or driver issues).
## One-liners
A few examples of piecing together commands:
- It is remarkably helpful sometimes that you can do set intersection, union, and difference of text files via `sort`/`uniq`. Suppose `a` and `b` are text files that are already uniqued. This is fast, and works on files of arbitrary size, up to many gigabytes. (Sort is not limited by memory, though you may need to use the `-T` option if `/tmp` is on a small root partition.) See also the note about `LC_ALL` above and `sort`'s `-u` option (left out for clarity below).
```sh
cat a b | sort | uniq > c # c is a union b
cat a b | sort | uniq -d > c # c is a intersect b
cat a b b | sort | uniq -u > c # c is set difference a - b
```
- Use `grep . *` to visually examine all contents of all files in a directory, e.g. for directories filled with config settings, like `/sys`, `/proc`, `/etc`.
- Summing all numbers in the third column of a text file (this is probably 3X faster and 3X less code than equivalent Python):
```sh
awk '{ x += $3 } END { print x }' myfile
```
- If want to see sizes/dates on a tree of files, this is like a recursive `ls -l` but is easier to read than `ls -lR`:
```sh
find . -type f -ls
```
- Use `xargs` or `parallel` whenever you can. Note you can control how many items execute per line (`-L`) as well as parallelism (`-P`). If you're not sure if it'll do the right thing, use xargs echo first. Also, `-I{}` is handy. Examples:
```sh
find . -name '*.py' | xargs grep some_function
cat hosts | xargs -I{} ssh root@{} hostname
```
- Say you have a text file, like a web server log, and a certain value that appears on some lines, such as an `acct_id` parameter that is present in the URL. If you want a tally of how many requests for each `acct_id`:
xmlstarlet sel -t -v "(html/body/ul/li[count(p)>0])[$RANDOM mod last()+1]" |
xmlstarlet unesc | fmt -80
}
```
## Obscure but useful
-`expr`: perform arithmetic or boolean operations or evaluate regular expressions
-`m4`: simple macro processor
-`yes`: print a string a lot
-`cal`: nice calendar
-`env`: run a command (useful in scripts)
-`printenv`: print out environment variables (useful in debugging and scripts)
-`look`: find English words (or lines in a file) beginning with a string
-`cut `and `paste` and `join`: data manipulation
-`fmt`: format text paragraphs
-`pr`: format text into pages/columns
-`fold`: wrap lines of text
-`column`: format text into columns or tables
-`expand` and `unexpand`: convert between tabs and spaces
-`nl`: add line numbers
-`seq`: print numbers
-`bc`: calculator
-`factor`: factor integers
-`gpg`: encrypt and sign files
-`toe`: table of terminfo entries
-`nc`: network debugging and data transfer
-`socat`: socket relay and tcp port forwarder (similar to `netcat`)
-`slurm`: network trafic visualization
-`dd`: moving data between files or devices
-`file`: identify type of a file
-`tree`: display directories and subdirectories as a nesting tree; like `ls` but recursive
-`stat`: file info
-`tac`: print files in reverse
-`shuf`: random selection of lines from a file
-`comm`: compare sorted files line by line
-`pv`: monitor the progress of data through a pipe
-`hd` and `bvi`: dump or edit binary files
-`strings`: extract text from binary files
-`tr`: character translation or manipulation
-`iconv` or `uconv`: conversion for text encodings
-`split `and `csplit`: splitting files
-`units`: unit conversions and calculations; converts furlongs per fortnight to twips per blink (see also `/usr/share/units/definitions.units`)
-`7z`: high-ratio file compression
-`ldd`: dynamic library info
-`nm`: symbols from object files
-`ab`: benchmarking web servers
-`strace`: system call debugging
-`mtr`: better traceroute for network debugging
-`cssh`: visual concurrent shell
-`rsync`: sync files and folders over SSH
-`wireshark` and `tshark`: packet capture and network debugging
-`ngrep`: grep for the network layer
-`host` and `dig`: DNS lookups
-`lsof`: process file descriptor and socket info
-`dstat`: useful system stats
- [`glances`](https://github.com/nicolargo/glances): high level, multi-subsystem overview
-`iostat`: CPU and disk usage stats
-`htop`: improved version of top
-`last`: login history
-`w`: who's logged on
-`id`: user/group identity info
-`sar`: historic system stats
-`iftop` or `nethogs`: network utilization by socket or process
-`ss`: socket statistics
-`dmesg`: boot and system error messages
-`hdparm`: SATA/ATA disk manipulation/performance
-`lsb_release`: Linux distribution info
-`lsblk`: List block devices: a tree view of your disks and disk paritions
-`lshw` and `lspci`: hardware information, including RAID, graphics, etc.
-`fortune`, `ddate`, and `sl`: um, well, it depends on whether you consider steam locomotives and Zippy quotations "useful"
## More resources
- [awesome-shell](https://github.com/alebcay/awesome-shell): A curated list of shell tools and resources.
- [Strict mode](http://redsymbol.net/articles/unofficial-bash-strict-mode/) for writing better shell scripts.
## Disclaimer
With the exception of very small tasks, code is written so others can read it. With power comes responsibility. The fact you *can* do something in Bash doesn't necessarily mean you should! ;)
